TRA/NSBOUNDARY ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN THE DNIEPER RIVER BASIN

SOURCES OF POLLUTION, THEIR IMPACT AND TRANSBOUNDARY TRANSPORT
In this document, the Dnieper river basin is divided into three zones (see figure 1):
Zone 1 the upper Dnieper basin - which covers the territory ofbelarus, the Russian federation, and the northern part of Ukraine, including the transboundary areas
Zone 2 the middle and lower dnipeper basin-located in Ukraine
Zone 3 the kakhovka reservoir outflow, the Dnieper-bug estuary and inflow into the black sea

In the upper Dnieper basin (Zone 1) the problems of transboundary pollution can be solved only by the joint efforts of belarus, the Russian federation, and Ukraine. Zones 2 and 3 are fully under the territorial jurisdiction of Ukraine.

There are five major routes by which the aggregated pollutant discharges are tranferred (transportd) from one country into another across the international boundaries of the Dnieper river basin:
1 from Russia to belarus: via the upper Dnieper river, downstream of the city of smolensk;
2 from Russia to Ukraine: via the desna river, downstream of the city of brayansk
3 from/ Ukraine to belarus: via the upper pripyat river, near the town of mozyr;
4 from belarus to ukrain: via the Dnieper and the sozh rivers, downstream of the towns of rechitsa and homely. This input has a profound ecological and radiological impact on the uppermost large reservoir in the Dnieper cascade, namely the Kiev reservoir, located just south of the international border, and upstream of the city of kyiv (3.2 million inhabitants);
5 from Ukraine to the black sea: via the outflow from the kakhovka reservoir through the lower Dnieper near the city ofkherson, into the Dnieper -bug estuary;

for the schematic diagram of the pollutant flows and transboundary crossing points, see TDA Summary pg. 15

1.1 ZONE 1
THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
The Dnieper river rises in the northern part of the smolensk region near the village ofEkaterino. It receives several tributaries (Berezina, Vyazma, Vop, Solya) of which some reach into the territory of Belarus. The catchment areas of the Dnieper in the smolensk region is 30.000km2 or approximately 60% of the region, with a population of about 5 million.

The river desna is a major first order tributary of the Dnieper, rising also in the smolensk region, but entering the Dnieper in ukrain near the city of kyiv. It leaves the Russian territory near the town of bryansk. Its catchment area in the bryansk region is 21,121 km2,. More than 2/3 of the total area of the desna basin.

For more information on hydrography, hydrology, climate, soils, and vegetation: see I-TDA, section 2.1

The smolensk region which borders belarus is highly industrialized with a high demand on water resources from industry and the general population

288.7 mil, m3 of the Dnieper's water is withdrawn by various users and sectors in the smolensk region. In addition, 130.7mil, m3 is extacted from grouneater sources.

As a consequence of high water use, the Dnieper and its tributaries are heavily polluted even in the uppermost stretches of the river.

Heavy pollution loads to the Dnieper river come from smolensk municipal wastewater's (25% of the total pollution load in the basin). Most of the wastewater discharged into the river is insufficiently treated. In Yartsevo, Vyazma, and Roslavl, wastewater's are discharged into the river without any treatment.

The Dnieper and its tributaries in the smolensk region receive over 200 million m3 of wastewater which are heavily polluted by BOD, oil products, ammonia, heavy metals and suspended solids. There pollutant loads are carried across the border into Belarus (table 1.1)

TALBE 1.1 annual wastewater Discharges to the Dnieper river on the territory of the Russian federation (smolensk region); transboundary transport to belarus and ukraine

Rivers Total into belarus and Ukraine
Dnieper Sozh Ipout Desna 204.34
Wastewater volume (in millions m3 181.26 0.16 10.67 204.34 34,980.50
Amount of pollutants discharged (t) 34,529.40 16.76 333.44 34980.50
Main pollutants 3,411.30
BOD tot. (t) 3,298.30 10.07 61.03 3411.30 35.02
Oil products (t) 33.15 0.17 1.22 35.02 3,774.00
Suspended solids (t) 3650 4.03 78.44 3774 899.88
Ammonium nitrogen (t) 850.90 0.34 40.91 899.88 Over 46.40
Heavy metals (t) 46.40 N/d N/d Over 46.40

The industrial city of Smolensk (population 350,000) is a major polluter. In 1991, at the peak of industrial production, it used over 58 million m3 of water (both surface and groundwater) and discharged the same amount into the Dnieper, together with 3972 tons of BOD, 35 tons of oil products, 5334 tons of suspended solids, 5000tons of sulphates, 221 tons of total phosphorus, 792 tons of total nitrogen (ammonia, nitrates, and nitrites) 38 tons of PAHs, 3491 tons of oil, 8.16 tons of copper, 8.7 tons of copper, 8.7 tons of zinc and 5.3 tons of chromium. Since 1992, these loadings have been declining due to the economic recession (see table 1.2)

Table 1.2 pollutant loadings discharged from the city of smolensk into the Dnieper river and downstream to belarus

SMOLENSK Unit 1991 1992 1993 1994
Total wastewater discharges 106m3 59.35 39.64 60.07 61.43
BOD total 103T 3.97 2.52 1.05 .59
Oil products 103T 0.04 0.03 0.02 .02
Suspended solids 103T 5.33 3.41 1.30 .85
Total phosphorus T 221 224.39 128.05 126.84
Total nitrogen T 792.90 1127 723.8 547.60
Nitrate nitrogen T 221.3 159.1 193.6 235.8
Ammonium nitrogen T 574.8 962.8 516.1 306.70
Nitrites T 4.48 7.57 33.27 24.98
Phelps T 0.01 000 000 0.00
Pah's T 37.82 13.88 16.29 16.07
Fats and oils T 3.49 3.49 6.27 2.55
Iron T 102.00 67.28 28.27 30.71
Cooper T 8.16 0.45 0.55 .62
Zinc T 8.79 3.26 0.98 .33
Nickel T 000 000 0.00 0.00
Chromium T 5.39 000 0.59 .64

For loading of pollutants from the cities of vyazma and roslavl, see I-TDA

The desna river basin is a mixed agricultural and industrial area. Forests, cover 28.8% of the basin. The area of agricultural activities is about 55% of the basin, with 38.2% of arable and. 42% of agricultural is irrigated. Agricultural production is specialized in meat and milk production, grain farming, and potato growing. Industrial production in the region includes manufacturing of transportation vehicles, agricultural machinery, road-building equipment, building materials, and chemical and textile industries.

The recent decline in the regions' economy has resulted in the gradual reduction of surface water consumption from 109 million m3 in 1990 to 77 million m3 in 1995. Still, considering seasonal fluctuations of the river flow, water becomes in short supply during the low-flow periods of the summer and autumn. During these periods, the river exceeds, its self-purification capacity and becomes harmful to the basin's population.

The town of bryansk (population 460,000) near the Ukrainian border is the largest polluter in the Russian part of the desna river basin. Annual volume of polluted waste waters discharged into the desna in 1995 reached 66.8 million m3, or about 60% of the effluents discharged in the whole of the bryansk region.
Loadings of major pollutants discharged into the desna river from the town of bryansk for the period 1991-1994 are shown in table 1.3. these high loadings enter the territory of Ukraine. The decreasing tendency over the past few years is misleading. It is not a result of improved water pollution controls but an overall decline in industrial and agricultural output experienced following the bread-up of the soviet union and the transition to a market economy. It is expected that this trend is only temporary and that industrial and agricultural outputs will eventually return to 1990 levels.

The Desna river represents a serious source of transboundary pollution, for Ukraine. The Dsna together with the sudost river carries into Ukraine, 55260 tons of various polluting substances per year from the territory of the Russian federation.

Table 1.3 transboundary pollutant loadings discharged from the city of Bryansk into the Desna river and downstream to Ukraine

SMOLENSK Unit 1991 1992 1993 1994
Total wastewater discharges 106m3 74.45 75.10 74.80 73.33
BOD total 103T 1. 27 3.15 2.27 2.58
Oil products 103T 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.02
Suspended solids 103T 3.51 3.51 2.32 2.39
Total phosphorus T 415.80 368.57 314.21 357.45
Nitrate nitrogen T 84.45 78.03 114.00 104.90
Ammonium nitrogen T 1160.00 1247.00 1059.00 789.90
Nitrites T 0.74 0.43 0.30 0.17
Pheols T 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pah's T 165.80 93.40 92.77 105.20
Fats and oils T 4.43 6.50 49.64 41.93
Iron T 1.51 0.36 0.29 0.28
Cooper T 6.65 0.42 0.3 0.76
Zinc T 0 0.27 0.2 0.2
Nickel T .01 0.34 0.27 0.21
Chromium T 13.89 22.31 37.72 14.94

Municipal wastewater's are the main source of desna river water pollution not only in bryansk, but in the entire basin. They contribute 80% of the total amount of polluted wastewater's produced in the basin.

70% of operating wastewater treatment plants are overloaded-there is an urgent need for their reconstruction. In some towns and municipalities of the bryansk region, there are no wastewater treatment facilities available at all. Construction of third unit of the wastewater treatment plant at bryansk was suspended due to lack of funding.

The smolensk nuclear power station is located in the areas of desna headwaters in the smolensk region. Nuclear reactors at this NPS are of same type as those installed at chemobyl (RBMK type).

Data on the rates of agrochemical applications suggest a gradually decreasing trend from year t year (table 1.4). however, this again must be considered in the context of the recent economic contraction in the region.

Year area of pesticides applications (hectares) Amount of pesticides
(tons applied) Area specific volume of pesticides (kg/ha)
1481 3552 2.8
1121 2411 2.0
1030 2175 1.8
729 1156 1.0
472 618 0.6
453 683 0.6

Arable l ands in the region are contaminated by lead, cadmium and mercury in total areas of 368, 272 and 144 hectares respectively.

A serious threat to the environment is caused by the disposal practices for solid waste, in particular toxic materials. In 1995 in the Bryansk region alone, industrial enterprises produced 1812997 tons of solid waste, including 452059 tons of toxic waste. 951875 tons of domestic solid waste, and 410063 tons of secondary waste. The issue of acceptable solid waste disposal remains unresolved.

REPUBLIC OF BELARUS
The Belorussian part of the Dnieper river basin covers an area of 116400km2 or 56.5% of the total area of Belarus. Its population is about 6.1 million, or more than 60% of the republic's total. 70% of the population in the basin lives in urban areas such as minks (1.6 million), Gomel (0.5million) and Mogilev (0.4million). over the past decade, there have been signs of a negative population growth due to migration following the Chemobyl disaster and a falling birthrate.

Industries in the Belorussian part of the Dnieper basin produce over 2/3 of the gross industrial product of blarus. There are many large manufacturing and processing industries (machine manufacturing, radio electronics, chemical food and wood processing). In recent years, production output has fallen dramatically due to economic difficulties.

The agriculture sector (grain, vegetable, and cattle farming) depends greatly on land drainage activities and intensive application of agrochemical (pesticides and fertilizers). About 18% of the total agricultural area in use is on drained lands, particularly in the pripyat basin (as much as 22%).

In terms of the water pollution index (WPI*) used throughout the former USSR, the rivers of the belorussian part of Dnieper basin can be described as moderately polluted, with some tributaries (Slutch, Uza, Plissa) characterized as polluted. A large stretch of the svislotch river is considered heavily polluted. Pollution by other substances (copper, zinc, iron, COD P) which are not included in the WPL significantly exceeds the water quality guidelines.

For definition and calculation of WPI, see I-TDA annex 1

Contribution by point and non-point source discharges into the Dnieper and its tributaries in belarus is presented in table 1.5 and 1.6 large portions of these eventually reach Ukrainian territory.

Table 1.5 point source pollution loads in the belorussian part of the dnieper basin: comparison of 1991 (numerator)
River basin Volume of polluted effluents Organics
(BOD) Oil products Ammonium nitrogen Nitrate, t Copper, t Other metals: iron, zinc, nickel chromium, t
Dnieper 114/144 1.5/2.84 .02/.09 1198/n.a 575/363 0.7/0.5 36/140.7
Berezina 391/433 8.8/6.43 .02/.32 2402/n.a 1020/8 28.2/20.7 180/142.9
Incl.
Svislotch 289/287 7.2/5.02 .16/.19 1982/n.a 64/0 27.2/20.7 118/55.0
Pripyat 73/157 2.50/2.83 .02/.05 351/n.a 622/8 1.1/4.0 120/27.6
Sozh 63/64 1.1/1.50 .01/.05 104/n.a 282/5 2.4/5.3 7/1.4
Total in the basin 641/818 13.9/13.6 .25/0.52 4055/n.a 2499/414 34.6/314 343/316.9

Table 1.6 non-point source pollution loads transported in surface from urban areas into the Dnieper (1989-1990, thousands tons per year)

River basin Organics (BOD) Oil products Ammonium nitrogen Phosphates
Dnieper 1.85 0.52 0.15 0.06
Berezina 5.51 3.21 0.38 0.16
Pripyat 1.38 0.32 0.13 0.06
Sozh 1.52 0.42 0.12 0.05
Total 10.26 4.53 0.78 0.33

Transboundary discharges of pollutants transported with river flow from belarus to Ukraine are presented in table 1.7.

River&
sampling station Organics
As BOD OIL Products nitrogen Heavy metals (tons per year)
ammonia Nitrate Iron Copper Zinc Chromium Nickel
Dnieper-
Rechitsa 34.9/45.7 0.47/0.46 2.62/5.34 2.62/1.7 2.62/1.7 47/34.8 94.3/87.9 26.5/13.6 59.5/51.8
Pripyat-
Mozyr 38.4/49.3 4.68/4.55 2.17/2.20 2.17/2.2 4.49/5.41 47.2/46.5 -/- -/- 59.9/69.1
Sozh-
Gomel 20.1/17.5 0.26/0.29 2.65/1.24 0.42/0.86 1.27/0.86 1.27/0.86 51.2/47.6 15.06/6.98 22.3/17.5
Total 93.4/112.5 5.41/5.3 7.44/8.79 7.53/7.97 6.58/4.31 7.53/7.97 145.5/- 41.5/20.6 201.7/138.4

Table 1.8 radionuclide load transported by river flow belarus to Ukraine (1011 bq) in 1993-1994

1993 1994
River-sampling station Load River flow km3 Load River flow km3
Cesium-137 Strontium-90 Cesium-137 Strontium-90
Dnieper-rechitsa 4.8 n.a 10.7 3.9 2.0 13.20
Pripyat-
Mozyr 5.5 n.a 20.4 4.6 6.3 15.7
Sozh-
Gomel 5.2 n.a 6.8 5.0 2.8 8.6
Total 15.5 - 37.9 13.5 11.1 37.5

TRANSBOUNDARY POLLUTION RESULTING FROM THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT

The area contaminated by cesium-137 in the Russian federation as a result of the chemobyl accident reached 60,000 km2 in 1995. Radioactive contamination affected the areas of kaluga, tula and orel regions, but the largest radioactive pollution loads are concentrated in the bryansk region.

Small rivers and lakes suffered most from the radioactive fallout. For example, concentrations of radionuclides in the waters of Kozhanov lake and svyatoye lake reached 447 and 1367 uCu/l respectively.

The input river was most contaminated by the fallout. Annual transport of cesium-137 into the Sozh and further to the Dnieper in Ukraine was 105.4 curies in 1987 and declined to 4.2-3.1 from 1991to 1995.

Monitoring of radioactive pollution (cesium-137 and strontium-90), perfomed regularly in the sozh river basin and its tributaries (the chemobyl area), indicates decreasing trends in the transboundary transport into Ukraine over the past years (table 1.8)

This decreasing trend can be misleading: it only indicates the transport of radioactive substances to other locations downstream through the washing out the sediments, run-off and land erosion, thus contaminating adjacent areas and waters.

1.2 ZONE 2
THE MIDDLE AND LOWER DNIEPER (UKRAINE)
The Dnieper contributes about 80% of the total volume of water resource available in Ukraine. It is source of water for over 22 million people, 50 large cities and industrial centres, about 10,000 industrial enterprises, 2200 agricultural farms, 1000 community water utilities, 50 large irrigation systems, and 4 nuclear power stations

Annual volume of water extraction in the Ukrainian part of the Dnieper basin is 17.3 km3, including 2.2 km3 of water used for domestic water supply, 7.1 km3 for industrial water supply, and 4.3 km3 for irrigation. Moreover, the Dnieper river is the main-and often the only-source of water supply for the large industrial zones located in the south and the south-east of Ukraine. 5-6 km3 if the Dnieper river water is diverted each year from the basin through the Dnieper- Donbass, the south-Crimean and kakhov canals. There are no provisions made for the rational and economical use of available water resources. Losses of water due to leakage in the supply systems and canals are at 10-20%; in municipal water supply and sewage systems- over 20%, in industry-20-30%. At the same time, water deficits in the Dnieper basin are very frequent and sometimes reach 6.8 km3/year.

Table 1.9 below illustrates the average annual pollution load flows through the transboundary area at the belorussian-ukrainan border (control station at Nedanchichi, 3 km downstream). The allowable MAC'S (Maximum allowable concentrations), representing water quality standards, are grossly exceeded.

Table 1.9 transboundary pollution transport at the belorussian-ukrainian border (Ukrainian data)

Loadings Annual loads tons Exceeding MAC, Per cent
BOD total 22269.8 31.0
COD 36903.1 102.5
Oil products 2021.0 168.4
PAH's 3263.4 136.0
Ammonium nitrogen 26359.4 281.6
Copper 451.4 1880.8
Zinc 893.4 372.2
Chromium +6 60.5 252.1

For definition of MAC (Maximum allowable concertration), see I-TDA Appendix 1).

Each year the Dnieper river and its tributaries receive 7.9 km3 of effluents from point sources. These effluents contain enormous quantities of pollutants, including oxidizable organics, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates, phenols, oil products, heavy metals and other foreign substances.

Large quantities of pollutants are transported from non-point runoffs on agricultural lands, cattle-farming areas, from the areas of human settlements, as well as with groundwater flow.

Ukraine has the lowest level of availability of water resources per capital and per unit area in Europe.

Poor sanitary and epidemiological conditions in municipal sewer systems make ineffective all activities directed at the protection of water resources against accidental and uncontrolled direct discharges of domestic and industrial wastewater's and sewer leadkages. There are no reliable data on direct wastewater discharges into the rivers as a result of operational accidents at wastewater treatment facilities.

There is no public access to information about frequency and intensity of local accidents in municipal sewer systems. Some information is provided only in case of serious emergency.

Imp/acts
Heavy industries dominate the middle and lower Dnieper basin. Over 6000 industrial enterprises are located here which encompass ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, coke foundries, oil refineries, power generation, heavy machinery manufacturing, and the chemical industry. "Dirty" metal processing industries are mainly located in the southern part of the basin.

These industrial developments have serious environmental impacts, usually caused by the poor operation of industrial wastewater treatment plants which discharge effluents into the sewer systems without any pre-treatment. As a result, in 1994 the amounts of pollutants discharged in effluents from point sources were :400,000 tons of sulphates, the oxidizable organics, 745 tons of oil products, over 400,000 tons of sulphates, the same amount of chlorides, 26000 tons of nitrates, 20 tons of copper, 32 tons of zinc, 23 tons of nickel, 7 tons of chromium, 2700tons of phenols. The largest industrial polluters in the Dnieper basin are the metal mill "Zavod" IM. Dzerzhinskogo: in dnieprodzerzhinsk, the metal mill "zaporozhstal" in zaporozhie, the metal mill "Zavod IM. petrovskogo" in Dniepropetrovsk. Annual volumes of effluents from these industries were 156, 104 and 98 million m3 respectively.

Food processing industries, in particular sugar refineries, also significantly contribute to environmental pollution.

The average annual volume of polluted wastewater discharges in the Ukrainian part of the Dnieper basin reaches 950 million m3. The list of major pollutants contained in wastewater's from various industries is presented in table 1.10. annual volumes of wastewater discharges from industries into surface water and effluent storage ponds make up 800 million m3, or 85% of the total annual amount of wastewater produced in the Dnieper basin. The most polluted and ecologically dangerous waste waters are produced by chemical industries (400 million m3 annually).

Table 1.10 major pollutants discharged by various industries in the middle and lower dnieper basin
Industries Major polluting substances
Chemical industry Mercury, fluoride, nitrogen, phenols, heavy metals, etc.
Fuel and thermal power generation Suspended solids, mineral salts, fats, oil products
Ferrous metallurgy Suspended solids, phenols, oil products, sulphate ions, chloride ions, Iron, nitrogen compounds, rhodium compounds
Oil refineries Organic compounds, phenols, oil products
Oil-based chemicals Nitrogen compounds, phenols, oil product
Wood processing Organic compounds, phenols, PAH'S
Light industries Nitrogen compounds, PAH's chromium
Machine manufacturing Mineral salts, oil products, metal ions
Agrochemicals Nitrogen salts, oil products, metal ions
Irrigation Chlorides, sulphates
Municipal utilities Organic substances, PAH's

The enormous growth of large urban areas and industrial zones in the transDnieper areas is another specific feature of the Basin.

There are over 1000 municipal water extraction sites in the middle and lower Dnieper basin. The largest municipal utilities at Kiev, dniepropetrovsk and zaporozhie discharge 532196 and 172 mln m3 of effluents per year respectively.

Another significant source of pollution in the Dnieper basin are animal farms, which discharge large amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium as wastewater nutrients.

Over 40 power generating plants are located in the Dnieper basin, including six hydroelectric power stations, with a total generating capacity of over 3 mln KW, and six nuclear power stations (four of them are located in Ukraine). There is also a large number of conventional thermal power stations in the Basin.

The density of NPS installations in Ukraine is 7 times higher than in the USA, and 10 times higher than in France. This is an extraordinary practice worldwide- to concentrate such a large nuclear power generating capacity in one region.

1.3 ZONE 3
POLLUTION LOADS CARRIED BY THE MAIN TRIBUTARIES INTO THE DNIEPER AND FURTHER INTO THE BLACK SEA
Table 1.11 presents an assessment of average annual volumes of pollutants carried by the first order tributaries into the Dnieper river and further into the black sea.

Table 1.11 contribution by the tributaries to the pollution load of the Dnieper river in the Ukrainian part of the basin (zone 1-2), and loadings of pollutants carried by the Dnieper river further into the black sea (Zone 3) in 1992; tons per year

River Organic substances (BOD) Phnols Oil products Ammonia, nitrogen Nitrite nitrogen Nitrate nitrogen Total iron Copper zinc Chromium
Uzh 2280.81 0.05 424.06 21.02 123.62 160.71 - - 18.23
Teterev 1749.78 0.00 342.18 7.78 77.77 - - - 35.77
Irpen 461.44 0.06 41.95 10.02 30.3 39.62 - - .24
Desna 22406.33 1876.00 662.26 66.22 441.5 1721.9 99.3 210.0 39.7
Trubezh 1671.49 0.18 113.01 8.38 30.3 27.34 - - 0.63
Ros 1559.33 0.07 136.92 14.50 114.1 159.74 5.55 180.0 55.53
Oishanka 94.39 0.02 18.88 0.87 5525 737 - - 0.38
Sula 704.79 9911.00 737.83 31.94 165.19 1343.5 18.8 10.7 0.14
Tyasmin 190.64 0.00 70.39 13.88 16.62 27.37 - - 0.26
Psyol 2985.83 21.56 680.11 39.81 199.06 - - - 0.00
Vorskla 1696.16 7113.00 481.49 45.96 448.66 842.61 13.8 22 10.5
Orel 1362.36 2635.00 272.47 7.56 60.55 631.98 3141.0 2486 0.05
Samara 1795.66 3280.0 356.67 18.45 71.74 127.09 11.6 47.1 0.00
Konka 84.14 0.11 19.98 1.07 6.66 1211.0 0.01 0.01 0.08
Inhulets 1193.0 0.23 46.12 3690.00 179.87 - - - 17.91
Dnieper
Estuary 99642.09 86.55 5656.5 3522.14 13489. 11748 431.0 6309.0 255.15

Pollution loads carried by the tributaries into the Dnieper and further into the black sea grossly exceed the MAC limits.

Impact of the Dnieper on the marine ecosystem of the black sea
The total area of the ukrainian section of the black sea shelf is 48600 km2 and most of it is affected by the inflow of the Dnieper river. Due to high nutrient loads carried by the Dnieper, the productivity of the marine ecosystem has always been high. Moreover, the Dnieper river has always influenced the biotope variety at the shelf area. Numerous sand bars, and spits located in the coastal zone provide very suitable habitats for a variety of aquatic species.

The coastal zone of the black sea subject to the direct impact of the Dnieper and the southern bug river flows is located to the north from the traverse between the Bolshoy Fontan cape and the head of the Tendrov spit and covers an area of about 2500 km2 .

The eutrophication process, first recognized in the early seventies, has been developing from algal blooming into the degradation of bottom-dwelling fauna as a result of oxygen depletion.

The Dnieper -Bug estuary has acquired many features which make it different from other estuary areas such as the Danube Delta. The regulation of the flow of the Dnieper and the construction of reservoirs- particularly the kakhov reservoir in 1954-are radical anthropogenic influences which have had a significant impact. The volume of fresh water inflow was abruptly reduced during the period of diversion for the filling of the kakhov reservoir, casuing its salinity to increase. Since 1958, the water salinity level at the Odessa coast has always been higher than 2-3 pro mile, which has made this area completely unsuitable for certain river species such as sardelles, crayfish, grass-snakes and turtles.

The Dnieper-bug estuary has a significant impact on river water quality. Concentrations of nutrients in the estuary are on an order of magnitude higher than at kakhov station (ammonia -.035 nitrates-0.154; organic nitrogen-0.613; phosphates -0.11; organic phosphorus-0.168u/l). Oxygen deficiency in the estuary; especially in the summer and autumn low flow periods, affects the quality of offshore marine water.

1.4 TRANSBOUNDARY TRANSPORT OF POLLUTANTS
A number of discrepancies are evident from the tables in the previous sections suggesting that there are significant differences in the data supplied by the individual national team for transboundary loadings. The reasons for these discrepancies are several:
1. The monitoring sampling sites are located some distance from the new borders (up to 50km) and variable self-purification an settling processes play a significant role in making exact estimates. No new transboundary sampling sites have been so far established.
2. The hydrometric data does not always correspond to sampling dates.
3. The frequency of monitoring has been irregular in the past years and has decreased recently, causing gaps in the data base.
4. There are some variances in the sampling and analytical methodology among the monitoring agencies.

Furthermore, some parameters collected are often meaningless (e g major ions) or inconsistent. Conversely, important data on toxic organic contaminants (PCBs, dioxins, pesticide residues,) are completely absent due to lack of analytical equipment and expertise.

Nevertheless, it was possible to compile credible values for transboundary loads for this report utilizing additional data from data bases outside of the Dnieper task force (Drs. A vasenko and V.osadchiy providing personal communications). The minimum and maximum values from the available data is presented in tab 1.12 (next page) and also in the summary diagram on pg 15.

The weaknesses (inadequacies) of the present water quality monitoring system and difficulties with load computations are addressed in the SAP section in the SAP section of this report.
Table 1.12 annual transboundary pollutant discharges in the dnieper river basin (minimum and maximum loadings over a period of 1-5 years)
Transboundary
Transfer (flow) Russia to belarus Russia to Ukraine Ukraine to belarus Belarus to Ukraine Ukraine to black sea
Samplling site South of smolensk
Dnieper South of bryansk, desna* Prypiat at Mozyr Dnieper & sozh at rechitsa-gomel Kherson, dnieper -bug estuary
Parameters
BOD, 103t 0.59-3.97 2.58-3.29 38.4-49.3 55-49.3 91.9-99.6
COD, 103t N/d N/d N/d 22.7-36.9 829-917*
Phenols, t 0-0.1 0-34.8* N/d 30.8* 36.3*-86.5
PAH, t 16.1-37.8 105.2-165.8 N/d 3263-5410 N/d
Oil products, t 20-33.6 1.2-40 468-750 2020-4680 399*-1305
Fats & oils, t 2.5-3.5 4.4-41.9 N/d N/d 7991-11748
Total, P, t 126-221 357-415 245* 1079* 4250-4286*
Total, N, t 547-792 84-105 10500* 17494* 18381
NO3 - N, t 221-235 78-114 4490-5500 2776*-7970 11989
NH4-, N, t 306-850 799-1160 2120-4980* 1240-13553* 5656-5812
Fe, t 30-102 0.28-6.1* N/d 4.3-6.5 7991*-11748
Cu, t 0.62-8.21 0.71-6.6 46-74 47.2-91.0* 76*-431
Zn, T 0.31-8.7 0-0.27 60-69 135-145 2408*-6309
Cr, t 0.61-5.39 13.9-37.7 N/d 21-211* 152*-255

1.5 WATER QUALITY IN THE DNIEPER RESERVOIRS
The five large multi-purpose reservoirs located on the Dnieper-built after world war two to provide hydroelectric power and water for industry and large-scale irrigation schemes-represents a major man-made element in the ecosystem of the basin. The reservoirs act both as sinks and sources of contaminants and pose a threat to the black sea if inadequately managed.

Water quality in the Kiev, kaniv, kremenchuk, zaporozh and kakhovka reservoirs is classified under the WPL index as category 4 (polluted). The most polluted water (category 5-dirty water) is in the kanev reservoir, in the upper part of the kakhovka reservoir, and in the Dnieper-bug estuary. Very polluted water category 6) is in the reservoir, and in the southern bug river mouth.

The water and bottom sediments are significantly contaminated by radionuclides and heavy metals (see Figures 4-5) and there is a constant danger of their release down stream and into the black sea.

/Poor water quality in the Dnieper reservoirs is mainly due to low oxygen concentrations in the water and high concentrations of nutrients, heavy metals, and algae. In recent years, oxygen regimes were disturbed in all Dnieper reservoirs and in the Dnieper -bug estuary. The areas of oxygen deficiency are extensive in the Kiev, kanev and kremenchug reservoirs. In the Dnieper-bug estuary, the area of oxygen deficiency zones during the low flow periods covers up to 2/3 of the area. In the years they can be found even at the surface. High concentrations of hydrogen sulphide were reported in these anaerobic zones.

Long-term data indicate a gradual increase in the total mineral content in all Dnieper, reservoirs. Together with water mineralization, the concentrations of major ions (ca, Mg, Na, Cl, HCO3, CO3) and their ratios are also changing. Such changes make the water unsuitable for irrigation in the southern parts of Ukraine, where the need is greatest.

Saprobiological assessments of water quality also indicate elevated organic pollution loads on the Dnieper reservoirs. Increase of saprobic content is usually observed in the summer period, especially in instances of intensive blooms of blue-green algae in stagnant areas (shallows, outports, bays), as well as in the areas located immediately downstream of large cities (Kiev, dniepropetrovsk, dnieprodzerzhinsk, zaporozhie, energodar).

For more information on reservoir water and sediment quality, see I-TDA figures.

Fish in all reservoirs are significantly contaminated by heavy metals-particularly cadmium and lead-as shown in table 1.13:

Table 1.13 heavy metal contamination in fish tissue in the dnieper reservoirs and in the Dnieper -bug estuary (mg/g of wet weight; * indicates MAC limit)

Fish species Cd (0.2*) Pb (1.0*) Cu (10.0*) Zn (40.0*)
Kiev reservoir
Bream 0.47 2.34 2.31 9.12
Roach 0.44 3.92 3.17 37.19
Pike 0.26 1.79 1.57 18.46
Perch 0.42 2.81 1.85 29.34
Kremenchuk reservoir
Bream 0.30 2.92 1.92 9.45
Roach 0.61 3.13 1.78 10.12
Pike 0.46 2.48 1.01 27.81
Zaporozh reservoir
Bream 0.42 3.88 3.15 10.11
Roach 0.61 2.70 4.11 29.17
Perch 0.55 2.40 3.42 21.11
Kakhovaka reservoir
Bream 0.85 3.17 1.72 10.11
Roach 0.91 2.95 4.14 13.37
Perch 0.54 5.17 3.12 10.70
Dnieper-bug estuary
Bream 0.47 3.84 2.88 13.39
Pike perch 0.25 1.72 0.39 4.65

/
The processes and modeling of water quality formation in the Kiev and kakhovka reservoirs are of primary importance for the transboundary diagnostic analysis of the Dnieper basin. The upper reservoir in the Dnieper cascade of reservoirs-the Kiev reservoir-is located in the area of transboundary impacts. It is influenced by pollution loads carried with the river flow from the territory of the Russian federation and belarus (zone 1). These loads are further transported downstream (zones 2-3). Water from the most downstream kakhov reservoir, containing a complex pollution load from the entire upper part of the Basin, flows, directly into the black sea and represents the ultimate impact on this sensitive international body of water.

For modelling of water quality formation in the Dnieper reservoirs, see I-TDA section 3.2.4

1.6 TOXICOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF SURFACE WATER QUALITY
W/ithin the scope of the ukrainian-candaian the field study of 1994, toxicological analyses of river water and bottom sediments from the Dnieper river and some of its tributaries, were conducted using biotesting techniques on Daphnic magna, ceriodaphnia affinis, photobacterium phosphoreum, scenedesmus quadricuuda, tetrahymena pyriformis paramecium caudatum, cyprinus carpion and Rattus rattus species.

For methods, see I-TDA section 3.2.5

Results of toxicological assessments demonstrate that many reaches of the Dnieper river are endangered. Water toxicity of various levels was detected in 97.3% of 53 water samples taken at 37 sites. According to the proposed classification scheme, 2.7% of the samples taken were extremely toxic, 2.7% highly toxic, 13.5% medium toxic, 78.4% slightly toxic, and only 2.7% were non-toxic. Extreme toxic levels were registered in Dnieper water samples taken upstream of Dniepropetrovsk: this section is subject to server pollution from Dnieprodzerzhinsk industries.

Toxicological testing of 58 end-of-pipe samples from industrial waste waters were taken at 31 outlets into the Dnieper river and its tributaries. 69.2% of these samples contained toxic substances.

1.7 IDENTFICATION OF THE CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN THE DNIEPER BASIN
It follows from the previous sections that most of the pollution generated in each country of the basin, particularly the non-degradable and persistent components, is eventually going to be transported downstream into the neighbor's territory and ultimately into the black sea. The transboundry element to the Dnieper rivers' pollution issue is therefore prevalent. It is also evident that there is a strong causal relationship between industrial and agricultural production output and the pollution levels in the Basin (see the reduced pollution loadings from point-and non-point sources during the past four years of economic depression).

Several causes to the serious environmental problems in the basin can be identified in general. Using UNEP-GEF categories, they can be divided into:
1. first-order causes (apparent, direct, technical)
2. second-order (root) causes, (broader issue, institutional, systemic)

for the Dnieper river, the first order causes are:
uncontrolled wastewater discharges into the water
indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides (agrochemicals), heavily subsidized by past governments
frequent accidental spills and mechanical break owns (e g chemobyl melt-down)

the second-order (root) causes in this context then are:
the prevailing official attitudes to the environment in the past as being of low priority; "unproductive", with an emphasis on production and, fulfillment of planned output quotas at any cost
unsustainable development, particularly in the post-war period, with numerous mega-projects being completed in the basin, which disregarded the natural resources and the environment.
A poor legal framework, favouring industry and agriculture
Inadequate implementation and policing of existing legislation and use of regulatory instruments in the past
Lack of public involvement and media coverage voicing environmental concerns (considered to be subversive then)
The recent economic recession, allowing environmental issue to remain a low priority due to a lack of financial resources for remedial measures
A preoccupation with resumption of past production levels, and
A lack of will
It should be noted that environmental protection legislation and a water quality regulatory, system was in place in the former USSR. There are presently 19 environmental protection laws and decrees in force in Ukraine alone, covering air, land, energy and water resources. There are well established state ecological inspection services/systems in all three countries, attached to their ministries of the environment (ecology). There is waste management legislation as well as a regular water quality monitoring system using the guidelines and classification system of the former USSR: these are still valid in all three successor countries and comparable to the environmental guidelines in western Europe and north America. Nevertheless, enforcement on state-owned industrial and agricultural enterprises has been questionable. In its proper perspective, the main issue is not a lack of legislation but a lack of proper enforcement of the existing legislation.

The current recession offers a unique opportunity to plan the resumption of economic activities in a sustainable manner and promoting adequate attention to environmental issues. New environmental awareness among the citizenry and the significant media attention (see section 2.2) under the new democratic conditions are promising signs that corrective measures will be broadly supported and thus successful (the stakeholders concept, environmental stewardship, etc)

DRINKING WATER QUALITY AND HUMAN HEALTH
2.1 ZONE 1
The major concern in zone 1 is the quality of drinking water supplied to the population.
40% of drinking water extraction sites and 22% of water wells are not capable of providing water of acceptable quality. Coil-index of over 20 is frequent.

There is a continuous threat of outbreaks of waterborne contagious diseases in the region. In this respect, the rural population is at greatest risk. The percentage of samples taken from local water supplies which exceeded health standards reached 40-45% in some areas.

The public water supply in belarus is drawn mostly from groundwater sources. Only Minsk and gomel use river water.

Results of regular monitoring at the source suggest that 20-40% of extraction sites do not meet sanitary requirements, 40% neither sanitary nor chemical composition requirement, and 6% do not meet micro-biological requirements.

The situation in rural areas is much worse: there is no centralized water supply and drinking water comes mostly from individual wells. Water quality of about one half of these wells does not meet sanitary standards. The most common type of pollution in the well is nitrate, nitrite, and bacteria (figure 6)

Radioactive contamination is another major contributor-perhaps the most visibly acute source-of harmful effects on human health in zone 1. The health of the human population living in the Dnieper basin has been seriously damaged by the effects of the chemobyl accident.

In the Russian federation in 1995, a significant increase in thyroid cancer cases among children was registered. 62 cases were registered in bryansk and kaluga regions, and a strong correlation between the rate of exposure and the rate of mortality was established.

The rate of mortality in the contaminated south-western area of the bryansk region is 15.1% higher than the average rate in the rest of the region. Infant mortality is very high there, as is the decrease in birth-rate. The highest infant mortality rates were observed in the districts, of kletnyansk with 33.2 cases per thousand, klimovsk with 28.7 cases, Komarichsk with 26.3 cases, Suryazhsk with 24 cases, and krasnogorsk with 23.6 mortalities per 1000 newborn infants.

Mortality cases in the bryansk region are mainly the result of circulatory system diseases (51.8%) and malignant tumors (13.7%). In 1995, the number of deaths was greater than the number of births by 8334% persons. The actual decline of the population in the region represents minus 6.2% for that year.

Infant mortality in the endangered areas is mainly caused by comgenital anomalies
As a result of comprehensive medial examinations of a selected group of children in the Dorogobuzh industrial zone, significant changes in blood compositions were detected. Analysis of haemogrammes showed that the general immunological resistance of the subjects is decreasing, separted from allergic sensitivity. In many cases, children suffer from bacteriological imbalances and methaemoglobinaemia (in particular children from the polibino settlement) as a result of the high levels of nitrite and other toxic substances in their systems.

More than a half of million children and teenagers live in the area affected by direct radionuclide pollution. During recent years, thyroid cancer cases among children increased 5-7 times. There was also an increase in congenital diseases (313000 vs. 233000 cases between 1991 and 1994)

The general health of the belarus population is much worse than that of other developed countries. The average life expectancy in 1994 was only 68.9 years (men-63.5 and women -74.3 years). The birthrate during the last 10 years decreased by 37.1% (from 17.0 per thousand pop. In 1984 to 10.8 per thousand pop, in 1994), but mortality increased by 20% ( 10.5 per thousand pop. And 12.6 per thousand pop, resp). As a result, the growth of the population has in fact declined.

Human health is further seriously affected by the presence of mutagenic substances in the environment as a result of intensive application of agrochemicals )fertilizers and pesticides).

The increase in mortality (in particular respiratory diseases) can also be attributed to the heavy atmospheric pollution in the urban areas of belarus (mogilev, Orsha, Gomel, Svetlogorsk, Mozyr).

In rural areas, human health is affected by nitrite pollution of groundwater sources used for the supply of drinking water.

2.2 ZONE 2-3
The deterioration in the environmental conditions of water bodies, the poor sanitary conditions of water supplies and sewer systems, disruptions in treatment operations, and insufficient disinfection of drinking water supply system all contribute to water of poor quality. In some regions, the water supplied to the population does not meet the requirements of the state standard for drinking water quality due to bacterial and chemical contamination.

The main water pollutants are oil products, phenols, organic compounds, pesticides, pathogenic bacteria, and heavy metals.

The poor quality of drinking water supplied to the population of Ukraine poses epidemiological threats. In 1994, an alarming number of cases of cholera, dysentery, enteric fever (1527 cases) and viral hepatitis-A were reported. The total number of cholera cases was 845. Another 640carriers have also been identified.

"Blooming" of the Dnieper reservoirs impedes the process for pre-treatment of drinking water supplies, impairs the use of reservoirs for recreation and, last but not least, results in intensive sedimentation and the degradation of the reservoirs themselves.

The operational condition of water treatment facilities for drinking water are very poor. They are overburdened and technically outdated and are not capable of providing efficient treatment of drinking water. Their treatment capabilities, especially with respect to heavy metals, chlorinated organics, phenols, oil products and enteric pathogens, are insufficient. There is an urgent need for the reconstruction and updating of these facilities toward the application of ozonization instead of the widely used chlorinization method-to reduce the chlorinated organic content of water-and use of activated carbon absorption and flocculation techniques. (Figure 8)

The situation of the public water supply in Ukraine is reaching a crisis point. A common system of public water supply management is not available. Responsibilities on management of water supply system and mains are dispersed between numerous authorities and are chaotic. A significant part of the population of Ukraine has to use water which does not meet sanitary and human health requirements. The public is becoming increasingly concerned with the situation (Figure 9)

2.3 IDENTIFICATION OF THE CAUSES OF POOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY AND ITS EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH
Similar to section, 1.6 the first-order causes of the problems in the area of drinking water quality and related health problems are:
Poor water treatment technology
Use of untreated well water in rural areas
The second-order (root) causes are somewhat similar also, namely:
The attitudes of indifference by the old regime to the quality of life of the common citizen
A tendency to hide problems and deny their existence
Ineffective, inconsequential and un-coordinated regulatory and inspection systems, despite the fact that there were established standards for drinking water quality (raw and treated water), comparable (and in some instances even stricter) than those in the EU countries and north America
Inadequate mechanisms to provide alternate drinking water supplies in case of emergencies, if one becomes accidentally contaminated
Non-existent or poorly implemented economic incentives (penalties, water pricing policies etc)
Lack of public involvement in the past and still a weak public pressure at present (excused by hard economic times)
The human health problems related to environmental causes should be looked upon as an issue which is both regional and transboundary in nature (see the Chemobyl example).

Recent of outbreaks of water-born diseases (cholera, hepatitis) as well as dangerously high concentration of nitrates and nitrites in groundwater supplies all over the basin, present a convincing memento a take an action soon.

BIODIVERSITY OF THE DNIEPER RIVER BASIN ECOSYSTEM
3.1 ZONE 1
the Dnieper basin ecosystem has significantly changed over the past centuries. Forest coverage in the basin was 75-80% during the 17-18th centuries. By 1945, it was reduced to only 25%. The present distribution of forested areas is shown in figure 10.

There are 7900 hectares of irrigated and 167400 hectares of drained lands in the bryansk region. The area of irrigated lands decreased by 11400 hectares due to withdrawal of irrigation systems that had decayed beyond usability. In 1995 9900 hectares of drained lands were withdrawn. As a consequence, the biodiversity of these areas was also severely damaged.

In some catchments of the Pripyat tributaries, the area of drained lands reaches 50% and more. This has had a profound impact on reducing the biological diversity of the drained wetlands. In addition, over 1.2 million hectares of land was ruined as a result of the chemobyl disaster. The present land use patterns are shown in table 1.14

River basin Forested areas Arable lands Swamps and wetlands Other (meadows, water surface, etc)
total Incl. swamp
Areas
Dnieper 41 10 35 7 17
Berezina 46 16 30 8 16
Pripyat 35 16 35 12 18
Sozh 24 2 45 9 20

Land draining systems in the belorussian part of the Dnieper basin cover about 60% of the area (Figure 11).

Urban areas have grown significantly, as have the areas of drained lands, particularly in the pripyat basin. The landscape, water, and biological resources are thus subject to increasing anthropogenic pressures.

Human activities have been carried out without any consideration for the conservation of nature nor with adequate environmental protection in mind. The resulting negative impacts became even more aggravated during the recent years of economic difficulties, with priorities to protect nature sliding down to the bottom of the scale.

A serious threat to the ecosystems of the Dnieper basin in belarus and Russia is caused by the large quantities of solid wastes accumulated over many years. For example, in the areas of potassium, mining, about 565 million tons of halite residues have accumulated over 30 years of operation. At the chemical plant in Gomel (sozh river basin) about 13 million tons of superphosphate have accumulated at the site. The amount of lignin residues produced as a result of industrial hydrolysis in the plants in Rechits (Dnieper) and bobrujsk (Berezina) reached 2 million tons.

The impact of solid wastes on the landscape is greatest in such industrial centers as Minsk, Gomel, and soligorsk. Only 5% of solid wastes are properly disposed of at controlled dump sites.

Another concern are the numerous quarries used for the extraction of non-metallic materials. For example, the quarry at Mikashevitchi has a depth of over 90 m and affects a surrounding area of several square kilometers. Over 50 km2 of soil was lost in the area of potassium mines. About 30% of this area is occupied by the disposal sites and mine tailing dumps. About two thousands square kilometers in the basin are occupied by peat extraction sites and peat dumps.

For the distribution of open mine pits, see I-TDA figure 1.9

The flow of about 800 small rivers is partially or fully regulated, and the total length of 600 fully regulated river channels is 19500 km. The total length of open drainage canals is about 90000 km. The area of lands where the water regimes are continuously regulated by drainage activities is 20700 km2. Adjacent areas are also subject to the direct effects of the regulated water regimes.

The effects of erosion are extensive on agricultural lands, especially between the Dnieper and sozh, covering 40% of the total area. excessive application of agrochemicals in recent years resulted in high accumulations of phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and pesticides in the soils, (see figure 13 in the colour panel)

For the accumulation of pollutants in plant cover, see I-TDA Figure 1.8

Nature reserves and protected areas in belarus
The largest nature reserves in belarus are the Berezinsky Biosphere Reserve and the Pripyat landscape and water Reserve. The area of specially protected zones and nature reserves in Belarus covers 6% of the total forested areas, 20% of swamp areas and about 1% of meadowlands.

For the distribution of protected zones and nature reserves in belarus, see I-TDA figure 1.11

Over 25% of plant species in zone 1 are anthropophytes; native species are still prevailing, particulary tree species, wetland vegetation cover, and shrubs.

Bird species are the predominant wildlife in zone 1 (about 70%). There are several thousand invertebrate species, which still have not been studies in detail.

During the last 300 years, about 20 animal species became extinct in the basin (aurochs, fallow-deer, sable). By the beginning of this century, such fish species as lamprey, sturgeon, white sturgeon, and salmon had disappeared.

Introduced species have become predominant in present fish populations. In the natural ichtyocenes, there is a tendency of commercially valuable fish species to be replaced by undesirable species, such as roach.

In order to draw attention to the plight of wildlife diversity in the belorussian part of the Dnieper basin, 97 vertebrate species (mostly birds) and 85 invertebrate species were listed in the red data book of the republic of belarus. The total number of species enjoying international recognition and special protection status is 120 birds and 4 mammals.

Anthropogenic activities in the basin, such as land drainage, have led to the explosion of certain insect populations. There affect the forest biogeocenoses and threaten the balance of the ecosystem in the entire basin.

3.2 ZONE 2
Agricultural developments
A high percentage of the area under cultivation in the Dnieper basin (65-85%) also adversely affects the environmental situation. For comparison, the average percentage of land under cultivation in the USA makes up only 25%. As a result, the total area of forestation in the Dnieper basin is only 14%.

Heavy pollution loads and intensive soil erosion resulted in the withdrawal from use of 1 million hectares of arable lands. The areas of eroded soils had grown to 10.2 million hectares, or by 28%, during the last 25 years. Each year about 70-80 thousand hectares are withdrawn from use due to erosion.

The construction of reservoirs in the Dnieper basin the made it possible to develop large-scale irrigation system. There are 53 large operating irrigation systems covering an area of 1.5 million hectares, and numerous smaller irrigation systems.

Vegetation cover
Presently, 70-80%, and sometimes even 95%, of the natural vegetation cover of the Dnieper basin in zone 2 is adversely affected. Furthermore, the composition of the indigenous species has changed over the years.

It is still not quite clear how many plant species are endangered and need special protection. At the present time, only 46 plant species out of a total 151 species include into the red data book or Ukraine are protected in nature reserves. There are no data available concerning special protective measures for relic and endemic species inhabiting the Dnieper basin.

127 flora communities in Ukraine, including native, endangered and diminishing species, are in need of protection. In the Dnieper basin alone, there are 34 such communities.

Forest communities are most vulnerable to existing anthropogenic impacts. Many plant species in these communities are threatened with extinction by the beginning of the next century. The existing network of nature reserves and protected zones is not sufficient to provide full protection of these communities.

The patterns of plant species distribution and structure of forests have changed significantly. In the forest-steppe zone, the one-time mixed oak and pine woods have been replaced by homogeneous pine woods. This is the result of a long-term unsustainable utilization of forest resources; the native mixed forests-with high reproductive capacities-are substituted by artificial forests with lower reproductive and biological survivability and diversity.

Plant communities of the steppe zone from the next priority group: the native "feather-grass" steppes have been almost totally ploughed and cultivated.

The diversity and productivity of meadowland species is decreasing at an alaming rate.

Intensive use of meadows as pastures for domestic animals has resulted in a reduction of biological and genetic diversity of plant species, and in an abrupt decrease of their productivity.

There are many wetland areas of various types in the Dnieper basin of Ukraine. As a result of land draining activities, eutrophic swamps were replaced by meadows of predominantly weed grasses; mesophytic swamps-by birch and willow thickets; and sphagnum swamps by birch woods.

Animal world
The animal world in zone 2 of the basin, despite decades of intensive industrial development and increasing human population density, still remains diverse in forms and features. However environmental changes underway in the basin over the past 40-45 years have damaged the diversity of animal species.

42% of the 164 animal species included into the red data book of Ukraine inhabit the Dnieper basin.the Dnieper itself is a habitat for 5 fish species included in the red data book of unkraine; among them the ukrainian lamprey, sterlet, and white sturgeon.

Nature reserves and protected area in Ukraine
The system of nature reserves and protected areas includes the following wetlands enjoying special recognition under international agreements:
Pripyat wetlands (12000ha)
Stokhod wetlands (10000ha)
Dnieper wetlands (26000ha)

Another 2400 nature reserves and protected areas make up the rest of the system. Their total area is about 540000 hectares, which respresents only 1.7% of the basin (the goal for Ukraine is 2.54%).

Protected zones with strict protection regimes makes up only 4.8% of the total area of nature reserves in the basin. The steppe zone of the Ukrainian part of the basin has the lowest percentage of nature reserves and protected areas.

The most urgent task for the conservation of ecosystems in the Ukrainian part of the basin is the protection of all remaining areas with steppe vegetation

For the full list of 196 endangered plant and animal species entered in the red data book of Ukrain, see I-TDA Table 3.8 and Figure 3.14

3.3 ZONE 3
Diversity of plankton in the Dnieper -bug estuary
Phytoplankton. A specific feature of the Dnieper -bug estuary is the frequent blue-green and green algae blooms. These phytoplankton species are transported with the Dnieper river flow and represent 48% to the taxonomic diversity of the phytoplankton community. Due to eutrophication, a number of the "blooming" species increased. It includes such species as anabaena spiroides (its population increased 3 times as a result of eutrophication up to 6.7 million cells/I), new species osillatoria, kisselevi (maximum population of 147 million cells/I), Meristopedia punctata (28 million cells/I), Gleocapsa minima (7.6 million cells/I), Gl, minor (2.6 million cells/I), Prorocentrum cordata (139 million cells/I), Sceletonema consatum (6.5 million cells/I).

Zooplankton. The biomass of zooplankton increased by a factor of 9 in the early seventies, reaching 3.5 g/m3, and by the end of the eighties it reached 5.5 g/m3, or a factor of 14 times. However, during this time the actual diversity of species had become narrower. Dominating the biota are such highly-reproductive species as Noctiluca miliaris and synchaeta baltica.

Macrophyto-and macrozoobenthos. The average biomass of zoobethos in the area of the Odessa sandbar is 175.5 g/m2 (including 123.4 g/m2 of mollusks). The total estimated volume of zoobenthos is 52650 tons (37020 tons of mollusks). A chronic oxygen deficiency in the summer seasons has resulted in the deterioration of chronic conditions for the bottom-dwelling communities and has caused such negative effects as the abrupt reduction in biomass and the diversity of species. There has been a degradation of four out of seven biocenoses due to intensive sedimentation. The biomass is usually about a hundred times lower in the summer period due to oxygen deficiency, which causes massive kills of major bottom fauna species: Mytulus reduced by half and the age of the population of Mytilus galloprovicialis has become significantly younger.

Lchtyofauna. Until the mid-bug delta had been the major fish-spawning and dwelling area in the entire north-westem coast. It was recognized as a favourable spawning area of such fish species as horse-mackerel, goby fish, dogfish, pelamyds, sea mouse, tonguefish, and sardines. During that period, maximum concentrations of sardelle fish larvae reached 360Vm3. The deterioration of water quality as a result of eutrophication has affected the reproductivity of many fish species, as well as their diversity. Maximum concentrations of sardelle fish larvae are now only 45Vm3. The population of ichtyoplankton has decreased about 10 times as a result of eutrophication.

There is an urgen need for the preparation of a special action plan aimed at the conservation of bodiversity all over the Dnieper basin in the territory of Ukraine, with special attention to the ecologically sensitive area of the Dnieper bug estuary and the adjacent coastal areas of the black sea.

3.4 IDENTIFICATION OF THE CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY REDUCTION IN THE DNIEPER BASIN
The first-order causes impacting adversely the landscape and its biodiversity in the basin are:
Extensive loss of natural habitat to large-scale agricultural and industrial developments.
Sprawling urban centres
Flooding of extensive land areas after construction of large water reservoirs
Extensive land drainage to gain land for agriculture; consequent loss of wetlands and indigenous species
Deforestation (also by way of agricultural development)
The second-order (root) causes are:
Old attitudes that regard nature as standing in the way of human progress ("we shall conquer and rule nature": Stalin)
Unsustainable land-use practices
Indiscriminate and heavily subsidized use of agrochemicals to boost agricultural output
Heavy industrialization and urbanization replacing traditional rural community system
Entremely anthropocentric approach to protect some natural area for recreation of urban-population.

Currently, there is no effective system for the protection of nature in place. Due to the acute lack of resources, nature still remains a low priority. Public involvement is low.

AREAS WHERE ACTION PROPOSED
The Dnieper TDA task force concluded that there are three major instruments by which the necessary improvements in the poor state of the basin's environment and its resultant transboundary impacts can be achieved namely:
1. an effective legislative and regulatory framework, at both national and international levels, which employs stringent enforcement of environmental regulations and standards, and uses appropriate economic incentives (the polluter pays principle, the three Rs' rule; reduce, recycle and reuse, penalties, realistic water pricing, no subsidies on agrochemicals, etc). Additionally, a new, progressive societal attitude toward the environment will be cultivated, which will be based on cooperation between the various stakeholders, general public media, and NGOs (l).

2. Preventative conservation and protection measures which will avoid the mistakes of the past, to be applied during the economic recovery period and at the new developments across the basin (at-the-source corrective measures, reduced water use, recycling, virtual elimination of persistent toxic contaminants from the water cycle, sustainable development planning for industries, agriculture and municipalities, sustainable land use, etc)(p)

3. Technological fixes and more effective end-of-pipe treatments in situations, where prevention is no more feasible (old outdated industrial plants with malfunctioning waste water treatment facilities, etc). The same rationale applies to most of the municipal drinking sewage treatment plants (t)

4. Overall strengthening and rebuilding of institutional capacity, with particular reference to redesign, re-orientation and upgrading of new transboundary monitoring and early warning/response systems in order to fill the serious, existing information gaps on transboundary transport of pollutants. These must include organic toxics monitoring capabilities (1)

The full list of specific actions proposed by the task force for individual zones of the basin is show in the ITDA, Sections 1.8 and 3.6. a condensed list of these according to GEF priority areas identifying the instruments of action as specified about (e g l-legislative and regulatory, p-preventative, t-technological, and I-indicating a need for filling the information gaps to justify remedial action) is presented in the summary of this synthesis report (pg 7)