Tumen Net

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Cluster Analysis of Environmental Issues for TumenNET Zones
Tumen River Zone

Short description of the special socioeconomic features of the zone
The Tumen River Area is a strategic body of international waters and biodiversity that is surrounded by three countries. Boarded by the People's Republic of China to the north and west, Russian Federation to the east, Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the south, the Tumen River Area has always been central to issues of economic and political stability in North-Eastern Asia and adjacent regions. Today, it is central to defining environmental sustainability and food security for these nations.

The drainage is situated in the mid-latitude zone and is bounded by Asia on the west and by the Pacific Ocean on to the east. Due to its location close to the Pacific Ocean, the area enjoys warm weather and much rain. Monsoons prevail during the alternation of seasons. In the area, winter is long and cold with northwest wind prevailing and summer is short and warm with south wind and southeast wind prevailing. Therefore, taking the drainage as a whole, we may classify the climate in the drainage as one of cold continental and sub-humid monsoon zone.

The annual average temperature in the area is between 2~6 degrees centigrade above zero, with the maximum reaches to 35~37 degrees centigrade above zero and the minimum falls to 40~38 degrees centigrade below zero. The annual RH (relative humidity) is 68%. It is high in the west and in summer, low in the middle and in winter. The frost-free period generally lasts about 110~150 days per year and the shortest duration lasts less than 100 days per year.

The first frost period begins from late September while the late frost period may last till mind late May except a few extremely cold areas in which frost lasts till early June. Sunshine hours annually average between 2,380~2,800 and the annual percentage is 54~59%. From May to August, sunshine hours average 710~900 hours per year which covers 30~36%.

Annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm to 800 mm, and rain falls mainly in June, July and August, which is about 60~70 percent of the total precipitation in the year. Being a coastal area, Hunchun City in the east has an average rainfall of 600~800 mm per year. The average rainfall reaches 500~550 mm per year in Yanji Basin and 600~800 per year in Buxiang Mountain areas in the west.

Affected by topography, meteorological conditions in the southeast and north mountainous areas vary sharply and vertically. As the terrain ascends, the temperature falls, and the rainfall and the RH increase. In the lower areas of Yanji Basin, the climate is dry and warm, which makes it a center of relatively higher temperature, strong evaporation and scarce rainfall.

The richness and productivity of the Tumen River Area and associated environs are, however, seriously threatened by high population growth, pollution, overharvest and habitat modification, resulting in high rates of habitat loss and impairment of the regenerative capacities of living resources. The soci-economic impacts of environmental deterioration are significant for the developed economies of this region. The agricultural sector remains not only a source of significant revenues but directly as an important domestic source of food.

The detailed geographic subdivisions used in the cluster analysis are shown in Table 1. The total population of the Tumen River Area in the three countries is about 2.4 million.

Table 1. Geographic subdivisions of the Tumen River Area
Country/Subregion Major cities Population of subregion (thousand)
DPRK
North Hamgyound Province Chongjin, Rajing, Sonbong 500 (estimated)
China
Jilin Province Hunchun, Tumen, Yanji, Lonjing, 1706
Helong, Antu, Wangqing
Russia
South-western Vladivostok, Ussuriisk, Artiom,
Primory -Zarubino, Slavianka 153.9

According to the characteristics of the Tumen River Valley and the floating of the river, the mainstream can be divided into three parts: upper reaches, from source to China Nanping; middle reaches from Nanping to Shuaiwanzi; and lower reaches from Shuaiwanzi to the estuary. The upper reaches of the Tumen River run over countless mountains in the Changbai Mountain. The tributaries, which meet this part, are Hongqi River in China, and Xitou River, Yanmian River and Chengchuan River in DPRK. The tributaries, which meet this part, are Hongqi River in China, and Xitou River, Yanmian River and Chengchuan River in DPRK. The middle reaches of the Tumen River include the Gaya River system. In terms of enough cultivated land and densely population, this sector has been the most developed area of culture and economy in the Tumen River area. Here, there are the Tumen city, Kaishantun and others in China; Hoeryong, Nanyang city, Yincheng and others in DPRK. The main streams are Gaya River and Mi River. Water apparently increases because stations in Kaishantun and Hedong. The lower reaches of the Tumen River include Hunchun River, Wulongchuan and other river systems. The main stream of this part is 146.5 km long. The river sector runs from Hunchun River valley plain (about 80m above sea level) to Fangchuan (about 5mm above sea level).

The industrial effluent in the Tumen River mainstream comes from China and DPRK. The biggest polluting sources is the Kaishantun Chemical Fiber Pulp Factory and the Shixian Paper Mill in China, the Musan Iron Mine and the Undok Chemical Factory.

Along the mainstream of the Tumen River, in 272 km above Kaishantun, there are almost no enterprises on the Chinese side, and the pollution comes mainly from DPRK. The major pollution source is the Musan Iron Mine of DPRK. It is the biggest iron mine in DPRK and the biggest iron ore production base in Asia. The mineral reserves of Fe3O4 is about 11°?10 8. The mining started in 1915. It discharged more than 1.5°?10 4t of effluent into the Tumen River in the 1980s of the 20th century, containing about 1 600°?10 4t of tailings. Its current waste discharges are unknown. The effluent comes from the Chengchun River, one of the branches of the Tumen River. The Tumen River and the Chengchun River converget at a place 9 km from Nanping in Dehua Township, Helong, China. Throughout the 385 km of the Tumen River from the junction to the Sea of Japan, the water is turbid with a lot of SS. Tailing coverage and piles can be seen on the river banks and the irrigation canals.

Life sewage is the one of main sources, which contaminates the Tumen river. Life sewage, which pollutes the mainstream of the Tumen river, is mainly form Hoeryong in DPRK.

As a key bordering open zone of the state, the areas of the Tumen River enjoy unique natural scenery and man-made scenery. The tourism industry of Tumen River Area has developed with the opening-up policy. At present, there are six tourist Zones: The Changbai Mountain Natural Scenery Zone, Yanji Folk Custom Tourist Zone, Hunchun Bordering Ssenery Zone, Longjing Historical Relics Tourist Zone, Tumen Bordering Scenery Cities Tourist Zone, Helong Dragon King Mountain Tourist Zone.

All of the trans-boundary railways, with the exception of the newly built Hunchun-Kraskino and the Hunchun-Tumen railways, were built from the beginning of the last century to the 1920s, almost one century ago, so in terms of strategic time factor, their impacts on the environment have become strategic.

The ports involved in the transport corridors are Vladivostok, Nakhodka, Vostochny, Zarubino, Posiet in the Russian Far East, and Rajin, Chongjin, Sombong, etc. In DPRK. The sea ports of Vladivostok, Nakhodka, Vostochny, Zarubino are major ports in handling of transit cargoes.

The important airports in the Tumen river area are Vladivostok (located in the northern part of Artem) in Russia, Changchun, and Yanji in China, Chongjin in DPRK.

The next plan is bases on a very optimistic projection about international cooperation in northeast Asia-construction of trans-boundary energy transmission networks and wide adoption of clean energy by the northeast Asian countries. It was just for this reason the UNDP accepted the concept of "regional transportation/economic corridors".

The assumption about the whole pipeline (oil and gas) is that by 2020 the oil or natural gas from East Siberia of Russia and Sakhalin in the Russian Far East will be transmitted to the south from the east and the west pipelines. The east line can reach Japan from Sakhalin Island via Okaido, and it can reach the south of Japan through Komsomolsk-Na-Amure, Khabarovsk and the west of Vladivostok across the Russian-DPRK border (acroos the Tumen River), and further through Pyongyang, Seoul and Pusan. The west line starts from Ulan-Ude of Russian, goes south through Ulan Bator of Mongolia, and further down to Beijing and north China region.

The planned east pipeline, namely the one from Sakhalin to the Korean Peninsula, will go through the Tumen River area.
Short description of major environmental assets (resources)

The flora biodiversity in Tumen river area is abundant including seven classifications of flora biodiversity such as fungus, angiosperm and etc. The higher plants are subordinated to 4 classes, 54 orders, and 134 families, in total 2090 species. Gymnosperm has 30 species, 12.5% of the number of species in China compared with angiosperm that has 2060 species, 6.86% of the number in China. There are more than 1200 species of common economic plants subordinated to 130 families. Most of the plants in Tumen River area distribute densely in Changbai Mountain Reserve and have some characteristic of vertical distribution. There are many unique species of plants in Changbai Mountain such as Pinus sylvestris var. Sylvestriformis, Rhododendron redowskianum and so on. The flora biodiversity in Russia is also very abundant, including 1500 species of vascular plants (62% of Primorye Territory flora biodiversity), 3500 species of fungi (70% of Primorye Territory flora biodiversity), 700 species of mosses (70% of Primorye Territory flora biodiversity), 400 species of lichens (100% of Primorye Territory flora biodiversity), 1000 species of freshwater algae (50% of Primorye Territory flora biodiversity).

Higher animals of China in Tumen river area include: 2 species of cyclostome belonging to 1 familiy and 1 order (66.67% of the total number of species in Jilin province); 38 species of teleostean belonging to 11 families and 7 orders (about 88.37% of the total number of species in Jinlin province) 12 species of Anphibious animals belonging to 6 families and 2 orders (about 85.71% of the total number of species in Jilin province); 13 species of Reptiles belonging to 4 families and 2 orders (about 72.22% of the total number of species in Jinlin province); 291 species of Birds belonging to 46 families and 18 orders (about 88.99% of the total number of species in Jinlin province); 66 species of Mammals belonging to 19 families and 8 orders (about 82.50% of the total number of species in Jinlin province); The fauna of Russia includes 86 species of mammals (about 80% of the total number of species in the Russian Far East); 10 species of reptiles (about 77% of the total number of species in the Russian Far East); 7 species of amphibia (about 88% of the total number of species in the Russian Far East); 64 species of freshwater fishes (about 53% of the total number of species in the Russian Far East); 16000-20000 species of insects (about 80% of the total number of species in the Russian Far East); Tumen river area has rich resources of wild animals, this region the largest migrating group of Crus japonensis in Jiilin province were found consisting of 116 individuals; the only distribution area of Chinese Haliaeetus pelagicusin the past half a century where the extinct Panthera tigris altaica lived. The wild animals widely cover over the whole river area. And also, there are very a few species on the brink of extinction, the number of which is decreasing year after year because of too few genes or narrow distributing area.

Group threats to the environmental assets into clusters

The threats to the environmental assets (international waters and biodiversity) were combined into following clusters:
- Growth of population and/or extension of radius of human activity
- Regional economic development
- Natural caused issues
First cluster is connected with fast growth of population in the North-East Asia and extension of radius of human activity. It leads to increasing the pressure on natural resources. Second cluster combines the issues from industrialization, agriculture development, cargo transportation, etc. Last cluster includes natural caused issues. Sometimes the issues may be caused by different reasons and, therefore, related to different clusters (fires, forests degradation, etc.).

The next issues were identified from national and regional sector reports and related to the above-mentioned clusters:

Growth of population and/or extension of radius of human activity
Freshwater shortage
Water pollution by domestic sewage
Over-exploitation of forest resources (plant collection, hunting, poaching)
Conversion of wetlands to arable lands
Conversion of forests to farming lands
Fragmentation of tiger/leopard habitats
Disruption of animal migratory routes
Deforestation
Decline in tiger/leopard population
Decline in deer/boar population

Mainly above-mentioned issues have social and administrative (lack of regulatory systems) nature. But for some of them (decline in tiger/leopard population) lack of political willingness and national sovereignty are underlying issues.

Regional economic development
Water pollution from industrial effluents
Water pollution by fertilizers and pesticides
Water pollution from oil spills
Decline in fish stocks
Water pollution by suspended solids

Natural caused issues
Water pollution by animal wastes
Primary forests degradation
Loss of forest habitats due to fires

Last two issues may have not only natural but social causes too.

Daurian Steppe Zone
Short description of the special socioeconomic features of the zone
The Daurian Steppe Zone is an important ecosystem ranging over Dornod and Khentii aimags in Mongolia and south of Chitinskaya oblast in Russia. Each aimag is subdivided into suoms. Each suom is divided into 4-6 bags depending on population and territory sizes. Khentii aimag borders the Russian Federation in the north. Dornod aimag borders with both the Russian Federation in the north and China in the east and south. The territory of Khentii aimag is 82.000 km2. Northwestern part of the territory is dominated by mountainous area while the valleys of Kherlen, Onon and Ulz Rivers are in southern and eastern parts. The highest point in Khentii aimag is Khentii Khan Mountain with elevation of 2362 m. Dornod aimag is the farthest eastern part of Mongolia and has 123.600 km2 of remote grass steppe where Mongolian, Chinese and Russian borders meet. The steppe is known as The Great Dornod Steppe' and includes the well-known Menen Tal or the biggest plain area in Mongolia. Two rivers cross the territory of Khentii aimag from west to east. Kherlen River is one of the Mongolia's largest rivers. Ulz River flows in the north of the aimag. There is lake Buir nuur, one of the largest fresh water lakes in Mongolia.
The detailed geographic subdivisions used in the cluster analysis are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Geographic subdivisions of the Daurian Steppe Zone
Country/Subregion Major cities Population of subregion(thousand)
Mongolia
Dornod Aimag Choybalsan 84.5
Khentii Aimag Ondorhaan 78.3
Russia
Chitinskaya Oblast Chita Non available from reports

Eastern Mongolia had been one of the important regions for agriculture; natural haying and livestock forage of Mongolia until 1990. In 1989, 114.1 thousand hectares of land was used for agriculture, but 10 years later this figure was reduced to 25.2 thousand hectares or about four times. In 1989, the region gave 16.8% of crop and 40% of natural hay produced in Mongolia. However, in 1999 this figure was already decreases to 8.1% and 21.2% respectively. Crop yield from one hectare had been 1250kg in late 1980s that was decreased to 700 kg or by 1.6 times now. The main reason is, of course, economic failure or financial crisis being still faced by the country.

There are two main types of development or economic activities in Eastern Mongolia. Eastern steppe of Mongolia is used for livestock grazing and crop growing. Especially, the territory of Dornod aimag has intensively been used for crop production in near past. 180.3 thousands hectares most fertile land has been used for crop production. However, as of today, about 60% or 108.0 thousands hectares of cropland have been abandoned. Serious soil erosion process has already taken place in 43.3% of Eastern Mongolia's cropland. Eastern Mongolia is the only region in country which still reserves about 350.0 thousands hectares of last remaining land suitable for crop production for Mongolia.

In 1970s and 1980s, Eastern Mongolia was one of the main wheat production regions in Mongolia. Intensive farming was also supported by irrigation systems and fertilizers/pesticides. No hand tools or draught animal have been used. Harvesting, threshing and cleaning for wheat all are mechanized and impacts were high. However, when the country started shifting into a market economy in early 1990s, the intensive farming was slowing down and production has sharply decreased. In its time the intensive farming affected the environment causing soil erosion, salinisation, and loss of nutrients. It has been estimated that about a half of the soil degradation in Eastern Mongolia has occurred directly from agricultural activities: livestock grazing and crop growing,. and a quarter from cropping activity.

In addition, many important natural habitats have been or are being destroyed, degraded and depleted in pursuit of land for crop production. Habitat loss due to crop farming has been one of the major causes or species extinctions or population declines in Eastern Mongolia.

Nowadays, although agricultural farming activities have substantially been decreased due to the current economic crisis, soil erosion and loss of nutrients still continue to be serious environmental problems in Eastern Mongolia.

In past years, useful mineral exploitation activities have increased in Eastern Mongolia. In the territories of Khentii, Dornod aimags there are about 10 gold mines that pollute rivers, erode soil cover and contribute in loss of biodiversity in the region.

In the past 60 years, average annual temperature has increased by approximately 0.7℃, soil moisture, energy supply has been changing and habitat of plants and animals is getting unsuitable for their life. Because of warming, temperature of cold seasons has been increasing by 3℃ from December to February and in warm seasons from June to August temperature has been decreasing by 0.5℃. This affects biodiversity largely. Suitable days for plant growing have reduced from 120 to 100, thus limits usual plant growing ability. Therefore, 40 traditional plants' distribution which needs more days for growing, have started to reduce and reproduction, developing process of wild animals met with difficulties, food supply lacked. Drought frequency have been increasing by climate change impact, plants have lost self rehabilitation, plant cover have been growing thing and vegetation cover have been degrading, animals abundance decreasing by moving to farther places because of non-sufficient pasture and dying there, by hunting or catching by predators. In some parts of region desertification rate had activated because of climate change. Therefore, biodiversity have lost because of such influences like, dry up springs, their degradation, water level diminish, soil fertilization loss and plant weakness.

The total amount of water resources of Mongolia is estimated at 34.6 km3, of which 6.69 km3 is in Khentii, 1.51 km3 in Dornod. As of 1999, Khentii and Dornod aimags exploited 0.72% and 4.7% of their water resources respectively. Hydrologically, the territories of Khentii and Dornod aimags belong to Pacific basin and Central Asian closed basin. Of the total territory, 64% belongs to the Pacific basin and 36% to the Central Asian closed basin. Onon, Ulz, Kherlen, Khalkh gol, the biggest rivers in Eastern Mongolia are within Pacific basin. These rivers take their origins at upper parts of Khentii and Khyangan mountain ranges. They form about 11% of the total surface water run-off in Mongolia. Network density within watersheds of the rivers is 0.1-0.5 km/km2. There are only small rivers with temporary flow in the Central Asian closed basin. Here, river network density is lower. Onon river with its watershed area of 94010 km2 and length of 808 km, takes its origin in eastern slope of Khentii mountain. 29070km2 of the watershed area and 298 km of the legnth is within the territory of Mongolia. Mean annual discharge of Onon River at Binder station is 28.3 m3/s. Ulz River takes its origin in eastern slope of Khentii Mountain and flows between Onon and Kherlen rivers and joins Tooroi Lake in the territory of the Russian Federation. 37751 km2 of the watershed area of 38851km, and 420 km of the length of 428 km is within the territory of Mongolia. Mean annual flow of Ulz River at Ereentsav is 7.68 m3/s. According to latest detailed hydrogeological studies in Eastern Mongolia, there are 8 ground water supply sources in Dornod aimag, and 3 in Khentii. As for water quality, Khentii aimag has clean water (0.3-0.5 g/dm3) except in its 4 southern soums where relatively mineralised water (0.6-0.8 g/d m3) is available. In Dornod aimag, there is clean water available in soums of Khentii zone. Mineralization is increased in direction from north to south. Relatively highly mineralises water occurs in central part of the territory, and salty water with hardness of 14-49 mg-eqv/dm3 and mineralization of 1.6-16.0 g/dm3 is spread in southern and southeastern territories of Dornod aimag. Generally, water in this aimag has relatively high content of iron.

Pastureland of Eastern Steppe covers approximately 24.8 million hectares. In past year vegetation cover of urbanized places, their surrounding and places with spring or other water sources have overgrazed because livestock grazes in these places largely, without any pasture change. At the moment 216.8 million hectares in Dornod, 255.5 million hectares in Khentii suffered by overgrazing and vegetation yield have decreased by 5 times, species diversity by 6 times.

Short description of major environmental assets (resources)

Landscape of Eastern Mongolia has been studies relatively well. There are 19 landscape types that belong to High Mountain, Middle Mountain, and low mountain-steppe categories. The region is divided in to the following zones:
- Taiga dominated zone of Khentii mountain;
- Daguur mountain steppe zone;
- Eastern Mongolia steppe zone;
- Dariganga-Erdenetsagaan mountain steppe zone;
- West Khyangan forest steppe zone;
- Eastern part of Dornod Gobi zone.

Only about 5.6% of the total land area in Eastern Mongolia is covered by forest. The Khentii aimag's forestlan is estimated at 1483.9 thousands ha of which 1193.3 thousands ha. Land is standing forest area. The forest species composition in this aimag is: 682.8 thousands ha. Larch, 88.0 thousands ha. Pine, 320 ha. Fir, 200.5 thousands ha. Cedar, 121.5 thousands ha. Birch, 4.2 thousands ha. Aspen, 0.3 thousands ha. Popular. About 1166 ha. Willow is spread along Kherlen and Onon rivers. As for forest resources, there are 12946.4 thousands cubic meters of pine, 113817.1 thousands cubic meters of larch and 30256.8 thousands cubic meters of cedar in Khentii aimag. The Dornod aimag's forest area is 155.7 thousands ha. Of which 122.8 thousands ha. Is standing forest land. The forest species composition in this aimag is: 30.6 thousands ha. Pine, 8.7 thousands ha. Larch, 42.9 thousands ha. Birch, 1.5 thousands ha. Aspen, 6.3 thousands ha. willow. As for forest resources, there are 4124.5 thousands cubic meters of pine and 1966.0 thousands cubic meters of larch.
Despite fewer number of species, compositions of endemic plants, biodiversity of Eastern Region of Mongolia has an interrelation of ecosystem in which a unique structure in comparison with biodiversity of the World flora and fauna. The plain steppe of Eastern Mongolia is last habitat where thousand of gazelle (Procarpa gutturosa) inhabit and migration of the herds of gazelles look as imposing migration of herds in Serengeti wildlife. In the Eastern Mongolian Steppe that holds all the types of Central Asian steppe there are 70 species of mammals (or 50,7% of mammals composition of Mongolia) that are included to 6 orders, 16 families, 43 families inhabit. There are 263 species of birds in the Basin of Onon River, 260 species of birds in the Basin of Ulz River, 238 species of birds in the Basin of Kherlen River, 297 species of birds in the Basin of Khalhiingol River. As for life style 61 species of them are sedentary, 266 are migratory species.

Dry steppe vegetation prevails in Eastern Mongolia (Table 2).
Table 2. Vegetation type classification in Eastern Mongolia
Main class associations of steppe vegetation Area, thousand ha
Khentii Dornod
1. Cleistogenes-feathergrss 722.4 715.5
2. Sedge-feathergrass - 202.9
3. Worwood-feathergrass 1616.8 -
4. Caragana-feathergrass 527.3 94.5
5. Hair grass-feathergrass 196.6 720.3
6. Filifolium-feathergrass
7. Meadowgrass-mixed grass 1287.5 21.7
8. Feathergrass-mixed grass 589.7 931.0
9. Agropyrium-feathergrass - 4235.2
10. Feathergras-worwood-mixed grass 1616.8 991.3

Group threats to the environmental assets into clusters

First cluster is connected with fast growth of population in the North-East Asia and extension of radius of human activity (last one is more specific for this zone). It leads to increasing the pressure on natural resources. Second cluster combines the issues from industrialization, agriculture development, cargo transportation, etc. Last cluster includes natural caused issues. Sometimes the issues may be caused by different reasons and, therefore, related to different clusters (fires, forests degradation, etc.)

The next issues were identifies from national and regional sector reports and related to the above-mentioned clusters:

Growth of population and/or extension of radius of human activity
Freshwater shortage
Water pollution by domestic sewage
Over-exploitation of forest resources (plant collection, hunting, poaching)
Conversion of wetlands to arable lands
Conversion of forests to farming lands or pastures
Disruption of animal migratory routes
Deforestation
Overfishing
Fragmentation of gazelle habitats
Decline in gazelle population
Overgrazing

Mainly above-mentioned issues have social and administrative (lack of regulatory systems) nature. But for some of them (decline is gazelle population) lack of political willingness and national sovereignty are underlying issues.

Natural caused issues
Water pollution by animal wastes
Climate change impacts
Primary forests degradation
Loss of forest/steppe habitats due to fires

Last two issues may have not only natural but social causes too.

Mongolian Plateau Zone

Short description of the special socioeconomic features of the zone

The Manchurian Steppe Zone is an important ecosystem ranging over Dornod and Sukhbaatar aimags in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in China. Each aimag is subdivided into suoms. Each suom is divided into 4-6 bags depending on population and territory sizes. Sukhbaatar aimag borders with the Peoples Republic of China in the south. Dornodaimag borders with both the Russian Federation in the north and China in the east and south. Dornod aimag is the farthest eastern part of Mongolia and has 123.600 km2 of remote grass steppe where Mongolian, Chinese and Russian borders meet. The steppe is known as "The Great Dornod Steppe' and includes the well-known Menen Tal or the biggest plain area in Mongolia.Two rivers cross the territory of Khentii aimag from west to east. Kherlen River is one of the Mongolia. Two rivers cross the territory of Khentii aimag from west to east. Kherlen River is one of the Mongolia's largest rivers. Ulz River flows in the north of the aimag. There is lake Buir nuur, one of the largest fresh water lakes in Mongolia. The territory of Sukhbaatar aimag is 82.000 km2 comprising mostly grass steppes, which punctuated by extinct volcanic structures in southern part of the aimag on the border with China. The highest point is Shiliin Bogd at 1.778 m. Eastern Mongolia is recognized as one of the last remaining untouched grassland steppes in the world. Therefore, protection of eastern Mongolia is essential.
The detailed geographic subdivisions used in the cluster analysis are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Geographic subdivisions of the Manchurian Steppe Zone
Country/Subregion Major cities Population of subregion (thousand)
Mongolia
Dornod Aimag Choybalsan 84.5
Sukhbaatar Aimag Baruun-Urt 59.7
China
Inner MongoliaAutonomous Region Erenhot, Hohhot, Baotou,Arxan Non available from reports
Eastern Mongolia had been onr of the important regions for agriculture; natural haying and livestock forage of Mongoliauntil 1990. In 1989, 114.1 thousand hectares of land was used for agriculture, but 10 years later this frigure was reduced to 25.2 thousand hectares or about four times. In 1989, the region gave 16.8% of crop and 40% of natural hay produced in Mongolia. However, in 1999 this figure was already decreased to 8.1% and 21.2% respectively. Crop yield from one hectare had been 1250 kg in late 1980s that was decresed to 700 kg or by 1.6 times now. The main reason is, of course, economic failure or financial crisis being still faced by the country.

There are two main types of development or economic activities in Eastern Mongolia. Eastern steppe of Mongolia is used for livestock grazing and growing. Especially, the territory of Dornod aimag has intensively been used for crop production in near past. 180.3 thousands hectares most fertile land have been used for crop production. However, as of today, about 60% of 108.0 thousands hectares of cropland has been abandoned. Serious soil erosion process has already taken place in 43.3% of Eastern Mongolia's cropland. Eastern Mongolia is the only region in the country which still reserves about 350.0 thousands hectares of last remaining land suitable for crop production for Mongolia.

In 1970s and 1980s, Eastern Mongolia was one of the main wheat production regions in Mongolia. Intensive farming was also supported by irrigation systems and fertilizers/pesticudes. No hand tools or draught animal have been used. Harvesting, threshing and cleaning for wheat all are mechanized and impacts were high. However, when the country started shifting into a market economy in early 1990s, the intensive farming was slowing down and production has sharply decreased. In its time the intensive farming affected the environment causing soil reosion, salinisation, and loss of nutrients. It has been estimated that about a half of the soil degradation in Eastern Mongolia has occurred directly from agricultural activities: livestock grazing and crop growing, and a quarter from cropping activity.

In addition, many important natural habitats have been or are being destroyed, degraded and depleted in pursuit of land for crop production. Habitat loss due to crop farming has been one of the major causes of species extinctions or population declines in Eastern Mongolia.

In past years, useful mineral exploitation activities have increased in Eastern Mongolia. Because of activities of Aduunchuluun coalmine in Dornod province and Talbulag coalmine in Sukhbaatar province, a great amount of soil cover is eroded, polluted by external wastes. No rehabilitation measures have been taken since the start of their exploitation. Mining activities also contribute to desertification in the region.

In Khalkh gol, Matad soums of Dornod province, in Erdenetsagaan soum of Sukhbaatar province there are 6 contracted squares which have 53146 km2 territory, where they provide prospecting and exploitation of oil. Prospecting and exploitation procedures of oil reduce and degrade Mongolian gazelle habitat, effecting on their reproducing, grazing, and moving activities.

In the past 60 years, average annual temperature has increased by approximately 0.70C, soil moisture, energy supply has been changing and habitat of plants and animals is getting unsuitable for their life. Because of warming, temperature of cold seasons has been increasing by 30C from December to February and in warm seasons from June to August temperature has been decreasing by 0.50C. This affects biodiversity largely. Suitable days for plant growing have reduced from 120 to 100, thus limits usual plant growing ability. Therefore, 40 traditional plants' distribution which needs more days for growing, have started to reduce and reproduction, developing process of wild animals met with difficulties, food supply lacked. Drought frequency have been increasing by climate change impact, plants have lost self rehabilitation, plant cover have been growing thing and vegetation cover have been degrading, animals abundance decreasing by moving to farther places because of non-sufficient pasture and dying there, by hunting or catching by predators. In some parts of region desertification rate had activated because of climate change. Therefore, biodiversity have lost because of such influences like, dry up springs, their degradation, water level diminish, soil fertilization loss and plant weakness.

The total amount of water resources of Mongolia is estimated at 34.6 km3, of which 0.14km3 in Sukhbaatar, 1.51 km3 in Dornod.As of 1999, Sukhbaatar and Dornod aimags exploited 13.6% and 4.7% of their water resources respectively. Hydrologically, the territories of Sukhbaatar and Dornod aimags belong to Pacific basin and Central Asian closed basin. Of the total territory, 64% belongs to the Pacific basin and 36% to the Central Asian closed basin. Onon, Ulz, Kherlen, Khalkh gol, the biggest rivers in Eastern Mongolia are within Pacific basin. These rivers take their origins at upper parts of Khentii and Khyangan mountain ranges. They form about 11% of the total suface water run-off in Mongolia. Network density within watersheds of the rivers is 0.1-0.15 km/km2. There are only small rivers with temporary flow in the Central Asian closed basin. Here, river network density is lower. Onon river with its watershed area of 94010 km2 and length of 808 km, takes its origin in eastern slope of Khentii mountain. 29070 km2 of the watershed area and 298 km of the length is within the territory of Mongolia. Kherlen River takes its origin in southern slope at elevation of 1750 m and flows to south first and then gradually turns to east and ultimately joins Dalai Lake in the territory of China. With its watershed area of 116455 km2 and length of 1090 in the territory of Mongolia, the river has 20.1 m3/s of mean annual discharge at Choibalsan station. According to latest detailed hydrogeological studies in Eastern Mongolia, there are 8 ground water supply sources in Dornod aimag, and 5 in Sukhbaatar. Relatively highly mineralised water occurs in central part of the territory, and salty water with hardness of 14-49mg-eqv/dm3 and mineralization of 1.6-16.0 g/dm3 is spread in southern and southeastern territories of Dornod aimag. Generally, water in this aimag has relatively high content of iron. In Sukhbaatar aimag, there is water with categories from clean to relatively highly mineralised in northern part of the territory, and salty water (in average 20-337 mg-eqv/dm3 of hardness and 3-62 g/dm3 of mineralization) is spread in 85% of the total territory.

Short description of major environmental assets (resources)

Only about 5.6% of the total land area in Eastern Mongolia is covered by forest. The Dornod aimag's forest area is 155.7 thousands ha. of which 122.8 thousands ha. is standing forest land. The forest species composition in this aimag is: 30.6 thousands ha. pine, 8.7 thousands ha. larch, 42.9 thousands ha. birch, 1.5 thousands ha. aspen, 6.3 thousands ha. willow. As for forest resources, there are 4124.5 thousands cubic meters of pine and 1966.0 thousands cubic meters of larch. There is no standing forest area in Sukhbaatar aimag. However, some Ulmus divesifolia and willow are grown in river valleys and around lakes.

Despite fewer number of species, compositions of endemic plants, biodiversity of Eastern Region of Mongolia has an interrelation of ecosystem in which a unique structure in comparison with biodiversity of the World flora and fauna. The plain steppe of Eastern Mongolia is last habitat where thousand of gazelle (Procarpa gutturosa) inhabit and migration of the herds of gazelles look as imposing migration of herds in Serengeti wildlife. In the Eastern Mongolian Steppe that holds all the types of Central Asian steppe there are 70 species of mammals (or 50,7% of mammals composition of Mongolia) that are included to 6 orders, 16 families, 43 subfamilies of fauna. In the region 72.6% of birds of 327 species of birds that belong to the 17 orders, 47 families inhabit. There are 263 species of birds in the Basin of Onon River, 260 species of birds in the Basin of Ulz River, 238 species of birds in the Basin of Kherlen River, 297 species of birds in the Basin of Khalhiinglo River. As for life style 61 species of them are sedentary, 266 are migratory species.

Dry steppe vegetation prevails in Eastern Mongolia (Table 2).
Table 2. Vegetation type classification in Eastern Mongolia
Main class associations of steppe vegetation Area, thousand ha
Sukhbaatar Dornod
1. Cleistogenes-feathergrss 2234.6 715.5
2. Sedge-feathergrass 71.5 202.9
3. Worwood-feathergrass 2833.7 -
4. Caragana-feathergrass 86.8 94.5
5. Hair grass-feathergrass - 720.3
6. Filifolium-feathergrass -
7. Meadowgrass-mixed grass - 21.7
8. Feathergrass-mixed grass 13.8 931.0
9. Agropyrium-feathergrass 1945.2 4235.2
10. Feathergras-worwood-mixed grass 2833.7 991.3
Group threats to the environmental assets into clusters

The next issues were identified from national and regional sector reports and related to the above-mentioned clusters:

Growth of population and/or extension of radius of human activity
Freshwater shortage
Water pollution by domestic sewage
Over-exploitation of living resources (hunting, poaching)
Conversion of wetlands to arable lands
Disruption of animal migratory routes
Overfishing
Fragmentation of gazelle habitats
Decline in gazelle population
Overgrazing

Mainly above-mentioned issues have social and administrative (lack of regulatory systems) nature. But for some of them (decline in gazelle population) lack of political willingness and national sovereignty are underlying issues.

Fast economic development and lack of attention to environmental protection from managers of enterprises were noted as underlying issues. Besides lack of political willingness of bordering countries is essential.
Natural caused issues
Water pollution by animal wastes
Climate change impacts
Loss of habitats due to fires
Last issue may have not only natural but social causes too.

Supra-Regional Zone
Short description of the special socioeconomic features of the zone

Supra-Regional Zone consists of three local zones: Tumen River Area, Eastern Mongolia (three aimags) and boarding territories in Russia (south of Chitinskaya Oblast-Daurian Steppe) and in China (Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region-Manchurian Steppe), and wetlands and eastern coast of Korean Peninsula (Republicof Korea).

The Tumen River Area is a strategic body of international waters and biodiversity that is surrounded by three countries. Boarded by the People's Republic of China to the north and west, Russian Federation to the east, Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the south, the Tumen River Area has always been central to issues of economic and political stability in North-Eastern Asia and adjacent regions. Today, it is central to defining environmental sustainability and food security for these nations. The drainage is situated in the mid-latitude zone and is bounded by Asia on the west and by the Pacific Ocean on to the east. Due to its location close to the Pacific Ocean, the area enjoys warm weather and much rain. Monsoons prevail during the alternation of seasons. In the area, winter is long and cold with northwest wind prevailing and summer is short and warm with south wind and southeast wind prevailing. Therefore, taking the drainage as a whole, we may classify the climate in the drainage as one of cold continental and sub-humid monsoon zone. The annual average temperature in the area is between 2~6 degrees centigrade above zero, with the maximum reaches to 35~37 degrees centigrade above zero and the minimum falls to 40~38 degrees centigrade below zero. The annual RH (relative humidity) is 68%. It is high in the west and in summer, low in the middle and in winter. The frost-free period generally lasts about 110~150 days per year and the shortest duration lasts less than 100 days per year. The first frost period begins from late September while the late frost period may last till mid and late May except a few extremely cold areas in which frost lasts till early June. Sunshine hours average 710~900 hours per year which covers 30~36%. Annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm to 800 mm, and rain falls mainly in June, July and August, which is about 60~70 percent of the total precipitation in the year. Being a coastal area, Hunchun City in the east has an average rainfall of 600~800 mm per year. The average rainfall reaches 500~550 mm per year in Yanji Basin and 600~800 per year in Buxiang Mountain areas in the west. Affected by topography, meteorological conditions in the southeast and north mountainous areas vary sharply and vertically. As the terrain ascends, the temperature falls, and the rainfall and the RH increase. In the lower areas of Yanji Basin, the climate is dry and warm, which makes it a center of relatively higher temperature, strong evaporation and scarce rainfall.

Eastern Mongolia and associated territories are an important ecosystem ranging over Khentii, Dornod and Sukhbaatar aimags in Mongolia, south of Chitinskaya Oblast in Russia (Daurian Steppe) and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in China (Manchurian Steppe). Each aimag is subdivided into suoms. Each suom is divided into 4-6 bags depending on population and territory sizes. Khentii aimag borders the Russian Federation in the north. Sukhbaatar aimag borders with the Peoples Republic of China in the south. Dornod aimag borders with both the Russian Federation in the north and China in the east and south. The territory of Khentii aimag is 82.000 km2. Northwestern part of the territory is dominated by mountainous area while the valleys of Kerlen, Onon and Ulz Rivers are in southern and eastern parts. The highest point in Khentii aimag is Khentii Khan Mountain with elevation of 2362 m. Dornod aimag is the farthest eastern poart of Mongolia and has 123.600 km2 of remote grass steppe where Mongolian, Chinese and Russian borders meet. The steppe is known as 'The Great Dornod Steppe' and includes the well-known Menen Tal or the biggest plain area in Mongolia. Two rivers cross he territory of Khentii aimag from west to east. Kherlen River is one of the Mongolia's largest in Mongolia. The territory of Sukhbaatar aimag is 82.000 km2 comprising mostly grass steppes, which punctuated by extinct volcanic structures in southern part of the aimag on the border with China. The highest point is Shiliin Bogd at 1.778 m. Eastern Mongolia is recognized as one of the last remaining untouched grassland steppes in the world. Therefore, protection of eastern Mongolia is essential. In the past 60 years, average annual temperature has increased by approximately 0.7℃, soil moisture, energy supply has been changing and habitat of plants and animals is getting unsuitable for their life. Because of warming, temperature of cold seasons has been increasing by 3℃ from December to February and in warm seasons from June to August temperature has been decreasing by 0.5℃. This affects biodiversity largely. Suitable days for plant growing have reduced from 120 to 100, thus limits usual plant growing ability. Therefore, 40 traditional plants' distribution that needs more days for growing, have started to reduce and reproduction, developing process of wild animals met with difficulties, food supply lacked. Drought frequency have been increasing by climate change impact, plants have lost self rehabilitation, plant cover have been growing thing and vegetation cover have been degrading, animals abundance decreasing by moving to farther places because of non-sufficient pasture and dying there, by hunting or catching by predators. In some parts of region desertification rate had activated because of climate change. Therefore, biodiversity have lost because of such influences like, dry up springs, their degradation, water level diminish, soil fertilization loss and plant weakness.

The Korean peninsula is located in Northeast Asia and extends some 1,000km to the Pacific Ocean. Along the coasts, there are many areas of reclaimed land and about 3,200 islands. The land area is approximately 221 thousand square kilometers. 70% of this area is mountainous. During the winter, from December to February, it is cold and dry under the dominant influence of the Siberian air mass. During the summer, from June to August, it is hot and humid with frequent heavy rainfalls associated with the East-Asian Monsoon. Annual total precipitation is 500~1,500 mm. Around 60% of the total annual precipitation comes during the short summer season. Forests in Korea can largely be divided into warm-temperate, cool-temperate, and frigid forest zones. Evergreen hardwoods are typical in warm-temperate forest zones, deciduous hardwoods are typical in cool-temperate forest zones, and softwoods are typical in frigid forest zones. The eastern coast of the peninsula runs directly along the skirt of a steep mountain range, while the western and southern coast is curved and upheaval in the eastern coast, caused this asymmetrical topography. As a result of this asymmetry, the ridgeline of the watershed runs on the eastern side of the peninsula. There are 81 natural lakes and nine multipurpose dams in Korea, which have a combined reservoir storage capacity of 11.1 billion cubic meters.

The detailed geographic subdivisions used in the cluster analysis are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Geographic subdivisions of the Supra-Regional Zone.
Country/Subregion Major cities Population of subregion (thousand)
DPRK
North Hamgyong Province Chongjin, Rajing, Sonbong 500 (estimated)
China
Jinlin Province Hunchun, Tumen, Yanji,Longjing, Helong, Antu,Wangqing 1706
Inner MongoliaAutonomous Region Erenhot, Hohhot, Baotou,Arxan Non available from reports
Russia
South-westernPrimorye Vladivostok, Ussurisk, Aritiom, Zarubino, Slavianka 153.9
Chitinskaya Oblast Chita Non available from reports
ROK
(For country) Seoul, Inchon, Chunchon, Chonju, Pusan, Taegu, Changweon 47275
The industrial effluent in the Tumen River mainstream comes from China and DPRK. The biggest polluting source is the Kaishantun Chemical Fiber Pulp Factory and the Shixian Paper Mill in China, the Musan Iron Mine and the Undok Chemical Factory in DPRK. Life sewage is the one of main sources, which contaminates the Tumen river. Life sewage, which pollutes the mainstream of the Tumen river, is mainly from Hoeryong in DPRK. All of the trans-boundary railways, with the exception of the newly built Hunchun-Kraskino and the Hunchun-Tumen railways, were built from the beginning of the last century to the 1920s, almost one century ago, so in terms of strategic time factor, their impacts on the environment have become strategic. The ports involved in the transport corridors are Vladivostok, Nakhodka, Vostochny, Zarubino, Posiet in the Russian Far East, and Rajin, Chongjin, Sonbong, etc. in DPRK, Pusan in ROK. The sea ports of Pusan, Vladivostok, Nakhodka, Vostochny, Zarbino are major ports in handling of transit cargoes. The important airports in the Supra-Regional Zone are Vladivostok (located in the northern part of Artem) in Russia, Changchun, and Yanji in China, Chongjin in DPRK, Seoul and Pusan in ROK.

The next plan is based on a very optimistic projection about international cooperation in northeast Asia-construction of trans-boundary energy transmission networks and wide adoption of clean energy by the northeast Asian countries. It was just for this reason that UNDP accepted the concept of "regional transportation/economic corridors". The assumption about the whole pipeline (oil and gas) is that by 2020 the oil or natural gas from East Siberia of Russia and Sakhalin in the Russian Far East will be transmitted to the south from the east and the west pipelines. The east line can reach Japan from Sakhalin Island via Okaido, and it can reach the south of Japan through Komsomolsk-Na-Amure, Khabarovsk and the west of Vldivostok across the Russian-DPRK border (across the Tumen River), and further through Pyongyang, Seoul and Pusan. The west line starts from Ulan-Ude of Russia, goes south through Ulan Bator of Mongolia, and further down to Berjing and north China region. The planned east pipeline, namely the one from Sakhalin to the Korean Peninsula, will go through the Tumen River area.
Short description of major environmental assets (resources)
Many of the bird populations migrate between the northern breeding areas and southern non-breeding areas and in doing so, regularly cross the borders of two, three or more countries. Others move locally, within or across national boundaries largely in response to the availability of feeding and roosting sites. Thus they depend on a large network of different habitats throughout their range to complete their annual cycle. Migrations of most birds follow some similar general orientations, even if different species and populations have considerably different migration strategies.

In the coastal/marine ecosystems more than 350 species of birds were recorded. During nesting, sea colonial birds (Procellariidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Laridae, Alcidae) dominate in the number. Their number in the Peter the Great Bay over this period reaches 150,000 individuals (specimens). The number of birds wintering at sea varies between 100,000 and 200,000 individuals. In spring and fall, the mass migration passes though the Bay and numerous sea colonial birds (Anatidae, Ardeidae, Charadriidae, Scolopacidae etc.) stop here for rest and feeding. In the Bay and its coasts, about 50 species of birds included in the Red Book of the IUCN and Red Book of Russia were recorded.

Wetland area (together with adjacent territories and water areas) is distinguished by a high degree of birds' diversity. During migrations, nesting (breeding) and wintering, more than 300 species were registered here and 32 of them were included in the International Red Data Book. An area is located along the East-Asiatic Flyway and, during migration, many thousands of waterfowl and shorebirds stop here to replenish energetic resources. The maintenance of a great many birds is possible owing to the diversity of types of the water-marshy lands and adequate food resources. Here, there are saltish lagoons and small slowly flowing rivers, sandy and pebbly sea beaches, shallow inlets and Tumen River delta. The water bodies located in the plain are characterized by high productivity. Lagoons are basic feeding grounds for ducks of passage. There are small basins of different extent reaching in the wide sections several hundreds and more meters. Some of them are continuously while the others temporarily connected with sea at periods of heavy rains and storms. The water level, oxygen content and salinity degree of these water bodies are variable during different seasons and depend on precipitation, wind direction and seas. The lagoons freeze usually in mid-November and free themselves from ice in early March-late April. In places, the water bodies freeze through the bottom. Due to the non-permanent hydrochemical conditions and water level variations, the species composition of the lagoons' vegetation is poor. Here and there, along the edges, they are overgrown with a reed etc. However, the tables of these water areas are largely free from the vegetation. The submerged plants cover the bottoms of lagoons almost along the whole length. These are Zostera japonica, Ruppia maritima, Ruppia spirallis.

There are 17 steppe birds in Eastern Mongolia such as Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus), Upland Buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), Japanese Quail (Coturnix japonica), Demoisella Crane (Antrhopoides virgo), Great Bustard (Otis tarda), Oreintal Plover (Charadrius veredus), Greater Shour-toed lark (Calandrella cinerea), Lesser Shory-toed lark (Calandrela rufescens), Mongolian Lark (Melanocorypha mongolica), Common Skylark (Alauda arvensis), Tawny Pipit (Anthus campestris), Nortern Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), Isbelline Wheatear (Oenanthe isabellina), Tree Sparrow (Passaer montanus), Pere David's Snow Finch (Pyrgilauda davidiana).

Group threats to the environmental assets into clusters
The threats to the environmental assets (international waters and biodiversity) were combined into following clusters:
- Growth of population and/or extension of radius of human activity
- Regional economic development
- Natural caused issues
First cluster is connected with fast growth of population in the North-East Asia and extension of radius of human activity. It leads to increasing the pressure on natural resources. Second cluster combines the issues from industrialization, agriculture development, cargo transportation, etc. Last cluster includes natural caused issues. Sometimes the issues may be caused by different reasons and, therefore, related to different clusters (fires, forests degradation, etc.).

The next issues were identified from national and regional sector reports and related to the above-mentioned clusters:

Growth of population and/or extension of radius of human activity
Conversion of wetlands to arable lands
Decline in birds' population
Birds' hunting, poaching, illegal trade
Disruption of birds' migratory routes

Mainly above-mentioned issues have social and administrative (lack of regulatory systems) nature. But for some of them (decline in birds' population) lack of political willingness and national sovereignty are underlying issues. Low public environmental awareness and lack of environmental information (including non available information systems) are essential issues for Supra-Regional Zone not only for this cluster but for Regional economic development too.

Regional economic development
No one issue of Supra-Regional Zone was related directly to this cluster. But two issues from the first cluster (Decline in birds' population and Disruption of birds' migratory routes) and one issue from the third cluster (Climate changing impacts) may have economic causes.
Fast economic development and lack of attention to environmental protection from managers of enterprises were noted as underlying issues. Besides lack of political willingness of bordering countries is essential.

Natural caused issues
Loss of forest habitats due to fires
Climate change impacts

First issue may have not only natural but social causes too.